Field Recordings

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Uh, Cynthia, are you hungry?

That is obviously not me chomping.

As you might remember from the breakfast episode, I have much better table manners.

That weird sound is a caterpillar.

Fair enough.

And we are listening to Caterpillars Having Dinner because...

Because this whole episode is about sound and farming.

Finally, we will get to the bottom of whether cows prefer REM or Jamariquai.

And whether playing Beethoven in a vineyard reduces pests and diseases.

Basically, we are going to explore what sound has to do with farming.

Stay tuned to find out.

Welcome to Gastropod, the podcast where we look at food and farming through the lens of science and history.

I'm Nicola Twilley.

And I'm Cynthia Graeber, and we're kicking off this episode with what might be a strange question.

Can plants hear?

I mean they don't have ears.

Right and I think that's why people never thought to look.

But plants have been shown to respond to you know music or single tones that are played in the past by past researchers and not found any big responses.

Sometimes there's changes in gene expression or the seeds may germinate a little differently.

But we never understood why plants would have that ability.

Or at least we never understood it until this particular scientist decided to figure it out.

Hi, my name is Heidi Apple.

I'm a senior research scientist in the Division of Plant Sciences and the Bond Life Sciences Center at the University of Missouri.

The world is full of sound, so it makes sense that plants would also pick it up.

Because of course they're experiencing all kinds of noises and sounds in their environment just like we do.

There's no reason those sounds wouldn't contain useful information for plants the same way they do for us.

I'm sorry to state the obvious again, but plants don't have ears.

True.

It's a vibration that's sensed in the plant body, not through the air.

So

our ears are designed to detect and process airborne vibrations.

We occasionally, you know, if you get a good bass thump going in a piece of music or the organ in the cathedral, you'll actually feel the vibrations.

And in that case, it's a substrate.

Your body is a substrate that's detecting it.

And that's much more like what plants experience, but they do it at all, you know, across the whole range of frequencies.

Oh, I love that.

I love that it's like that.

Yeah, like to feel how a plant hears, you have to go clubbing and stand next to the bass, basically.

But so, so, okay, so we've established that plants can hear things differently than we do.

But why?

I imagine they didn't develop that ability, so they could go clubbing or listen to music.

And you and your colleagues thought there might be another reason that they pick up these sound vibrations.

So, what were you thinking?

Yes, the environment is full of all sorts of useful sound information for plants.

So we focused on the vibrations caused by insect feeding.

And those are one of the earliest and most quickly transmitted signals that plants have that they're being attacked.

That was their hypothesis.

Heidi and her collaborator Reginald Kokroft thought that plants might be able to hear the insects attacking them and use that information to unleash chemical warfare.

They decided to test this with a plant called Arabidopsis.

It's a thin, weedy plant plant that's related to cabbage, and scientists often use it for experiments.

Well, the first thing we had to do was to measure what kind of vibrations the plants actually experience when they're being fed upon.

So they put a caterpillar on one of the Arabidopsis leaves, and of course, it started eating, which makes the leaf move.

And these are very small.

It's like one-ten-thousandths of an inch.

Heidi and Rex captured the tiny vibrations using a laser.

And once we measured those feeding vibrations of a bunch of different caterpillars, then what he can do is

play back a signal through a small device, essentially a piezoelectrode, like you have in guitar pickups.

So basically, they played those tiny vibrations back as a sound signal on the leaf.

And the plant produced its chemical defense just as if a caterpillar were there.

But there's no caterpillar there.

Now, that was very exciting.

We were very happy.

But, you know, at one level, because we're both ecologists, we thought, so what?

You know, plants might respond to everything.

So in the second experiment, we introduced other sources of environmental sound.

And we used wind as a treatment.

It was a gentle wind.

And also the sound of a treehopper that makes these fairly loud calls that are transmitted through plants.

And the thing about the treehopper is that it doesn't eat a rabbidopsis.

So there's no reason for the plant to freak out and unleash its chemical arsenal when it hears a treehopper.

So guess what?

The plant only produced more of its defense chemicals when it heard the caterpillar sounds.

It completely ignored the wind and the treehopper.

This is crazy cool research.

They showed that plants actually do hear in whatever that means in plant world.

They hear their predators, those hungry caterpillars, and they fight back.

Do you know if this effect holds true in other plants other than the ones that, and other than the arabidopsis?

We don't know yet, but that's what this summer is for.

We were funded by National Science Foundation to pursue and understand this further, and one of the goals is to demonstrate that it occurs in other plants.

Heidi and her team are testing Brussels sprouts this summer.

And then if they show it works in these other plants too, maybe they'll be able to use this science to make an acoustic pesticide.

The idea is that you could play a sound to a plant so that it can get prepped for war.

Then when a real bug comes along, the plant will be able to fend it off.

That's the theory anyway.

Right now we spray crops against pests, but that poses a real health risk for farm workers and for consumers, as well as for other species like bees.

And organic farmers often struggle with effective pest control.

Wiring fields for sound seems like sci-fi, but it could work one day.

We've been asked a lot about that.

And in fact, we have a colleague in Florence, Italy, who's been playing Beethoven in vineyards

and has reported some benefit to pest control there.

But we look forward to trying that out in another summer.

But there is an even crazier idea.

So plants have this amazing diversity of chemistry that we all take advantage of as

flavoring, food preservatives, and natural medicines, fragrances.

But those all evolved in plants to ward off their own pests, whether they're diseases or insect pests.

So maybe by playing the sounds of hungry bugs to plants, these plants will actually be healthier for us.

Heidi's even trying this out in the lab right now.

They're working with a plant that's used medicinally in Africa, and they're testing whether playing the plant sounds of being eaten causes it to make more of that useful medicinal chemical.

But it's like night of the living dead for the plants.

So scary.

Can't help but imagine these greenhouses full of plants in Missouri, all terrified out of their minds.

Oh, those poor plants.

But the insects, man, even after we have harvested our wheat and rice and Brussels sprouts, the insects still try to eat them.

And our pest control options there are even worse.

You can't just dump pesticide in a grain silo.

So, in tropical countries, you can have, say, 30 to 50 percent of the food go to waste because it becomes infested before people can eat it.

In the U.S., I would say it's maybe 15 percent.

That is a lot.

And that problem was what inspired Richard Mencken.

He's an entomologist with the USDA based down in Florida.

And just like Heidi is working on a kind of acoustic pesticide, he's working on acoustic pest control.

This idea has a long history because bugs make noise.

We've always known that.

And scientists have been studying it.

Oh, yeah, for about a hundred years.

People have been interested for a long time.

Now, mostly at the very beginning, they just used microphones and they were detecting the sounds that they could hear.

And later on, it became apparent that you could also pick up sounds

in things like apples and in stored products.

Here's the thing.

When bugs are eating our food in grain silos or from the inside of an apple, we can't find them in time.

Sometimes we can't even see them to know that they're there.

Right now, the U.S.

Grain Inspection Service's standard method is to sieve a two-pound sample of grains from a silo and see if they can find any weevils.

The rules say that if they find two or more live weevils, the silo is considered infested.

But this is too late.

By the time you can find those weevils in the grain, they've already multiplied and are eating our food.

We want to find them earlier while they're still little larger.

larva, and we want it to be automated.

We can't send inspectors to every grain silo every day.

An infestation can explode in two days because of how quickly they reproduce.

So it turns out the sound of a weevil larvae feeding on grain is audible.

In fact, it's precisely 23 decibels.

That's what Richard found.

He spent decades putting together a catalogue of insect sounds.

He built a whole library of muffled tapping and boring and scraping and crunching sounds from inside of grain elevators across the country.

That's kind of gross.

Totally disgusting.

He literally has the sound of larvae in wheat kernels from when they are 17 days old

versus from when they are 18 days old.

And you can tell the difference.

Early on it seemed like I could identify say chewing movements, walking movements, things the other things they were doing like moving brass to the end of the tunnel and kicking it out.

Brass is insect poo, just so you know.

I was very interested in the behaviors because you also have a problem.

The insects are not very loud and they can, their sounds could be masked by background noises.

Once he collected all those reference sounds, Richard spent years working with engineers to make a recording probe that was sensitive enough to capture the insects, but tough enough to function inside a grain silo.

And then he spent even more years working with computer people to design programs that could pull out those insect sounds and identify them in the midst of all the other sounds going on.

He's built two prototypes.

The machine is called an Acoustic Location Fingerprinting Insect Detector, or ALFID, and it works.

They found they had a 90% probability of identifying two randomly located insects producing sounds in a wheat sample.

But you can't go out and buy an ALFID yet.

Richard is just not a business guy.

In the meantime, though, he's turned his bug-seeking attention to a huge problem in Florida.

Psyllids are these tiny sap-sucking insects from Asia, and they are killing orange and grapefruit trees in Florida.

They're literally threatening to wipe out Florida's orange groves.

Richard has taped the vibrations that a female psyllid makes when it's agreeing to have sex.

He's found that if he plays that, he can lure the male psyllids and trap them.

The poor guys head over to what they think is a lady psyllid,

and it turns out to be a trap.

I know, I know it kind of sounds like a cow, but I promise that is one horny lady psyllid.

So, playing insect sounds to plants in a field works.

And recording insect sounds in an enclosed space like a grain silo, that can be made to work, although it's taken richer decades.

But recording insect sounds in a field, that is a lot harder.

Well, recording insects with microphones is a really actually bad idea.

The problem is insects make very, very little sound, so you have to have either very sensitive microphones, but then you get deafened by wind noise, by birds, by helicopters, by people passing in cars.

So, really, microphones are kind of doomed for insects.

That's Eamon Kyo.

He's a computer scientist at the University of California, Riverside, and he's working on a super cool new way to record insect sounds.

When I was younger, I saw this kind of a James Bond type movie, maybe wasn't really James Bond, where we had some spies.

And it is kind of classic trick that really works for spying on people.

So, let's say you have a conversation in a room, and I'm outside, maybe 100 meters away, and I want to spy on you.

If I shine a laser light on the glass in that room and capture the reflection of that laser light, as you speak the window vibrates very slightly and the laser light will also vibrate very slightly.

And if you capture that laser light you can actually recover the sound from that room.

It's a classic spying trick that's used all over the world.

That is the kind of inspiration we had for the actual sensor that we use.

I love it.

This is what James Bond would do if he wanted to detect pests clearly.

Exactly.

If James James Bond were a scientist.

There we go.

That's what they did.

They made a James Bond spy recorder, but for insects.

So, okay, so pretend I'm an insect flying past your detection setup.

What actually happens?

I'm like,

what's going on at your end?

Well, as insects, actually, you won't even know you're flying past the sensor.

We use red light, and most insects cannot see red light.

So an insect actually has no experience at all, basically.

But as the insect flies past the red light, he or she will leave a shadow on the further odes, and we translate that change in shadow, which is a very fast change in shadow, into essentially what you can consider a sound feature.

And that sound feature is sent to a computer, and the computer looks at that and does what's called spectral analysis.

And from that, we can actually make kind of a signature, like a fingerprint, if you like, almost, of different kinds of species.

The laser picks up the shadow of the wing beats and turns that back into sound.

It's kind of like what Heidi was doing with her caterpillar munching, but from further away.

And the really useful thing is, different insects make different wing beat sounds.

Eamon can even tell apart the sound of female insects versus males.

Apparently, lady mosquitoes beat their wings slower than the boys do.

The sound, though, it's not quite enough on its own to identify all the different bugs they want to find.

So Eamon and his team have a slightly more complicated system.

Their computer program includes information about where in the world they're looking and what time of day it is.

So obviously, at night time, bees don't don't fly but mosquitoes do.

In daytime bees fly mosquitoes don't.

Those extra details help the system make even better guesses as to what just flew past it.

And this crazy James Bond setup is actually super effective.

In the tenth of a second that it takes for an insect to fly through this knife edge laser light beam, Eamon's system can identify individual insects with close to 100% accuracy.

He can tell if there's any insect flying by from dozens of feet away and tell you what sort of insect it is at a distance of about 10 feet or so.

And it's not like a microphone because it isn't capturing every other sound, just this pinpoint measuring of the wing beats.

So, yes, there are many applications in agriculture.

The basic problem in agriculture is there are interventions to control insects.

There are things like biological controls, there are things like pesticide spraying and so forth.

But to use those very effectively, you have to know which insects you have, maybe the life stage, the sex, the species, and so forth, quite accurately.

Otherwise you have to do a very expensive blanket spraying.

And so our idea is that we have a bunch of these sensors in the field and then once in the morning they might text or email the farmer and tell the farmer spray a small amount of pesticide in that corner or this corner and

you're good.

Without good quality sensors of some kind, then basically the farmer doesn't notice the problem until it's too late, you have an infestation, and then you have to use helicopters or blanket spraying, which is much more expensive and also damages the environment, and so on and so forth.

And just like Richard's sensor, the information could come in real time.

I have to admit, I am kind of amazed by this insect laser spy detection system.

They'll soon be doing field trials in both California and in Africa, and then they're hoping to commercialize it.

So stay tuned.

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So that's what's going on with plants and sounds and farming.

But there's more.

You know, animals can hear sound too.

Anecdotally, many dairy farmers have long believed in the power of good music to increase a cow's yield.

But scientists have actually put this to the test.

A 1996 study at the University of Guelph, Canada, showed that music made cows more likely to voluntarily enter an automatic milking system.

And then here's my favorite: a 2001 study at the University of Leicester.

They were trying to find out what kind of music cows like.

And what do cows prefer to rock out to?

Well, they took two herds of a thousand dairy cows each, and they played one group fast music and the other group slow music for 12 hours a day for nine weeks.

It was 2001, so the fast music was Jameriquai's Space Cowboy.

And the slow music.

Everybody cries.

And it turns out that the cows love REM.

Everybody hurts.

The ones that listened to Everybody Hurts had a 3% increase in yield.

That's an extra pint and a half per cow.

Obviously, I totally love this.

I do love REM too.

But I have to admit, Nikki, I'm a little skeptical.

Do all cows really love the same music?

No, I mean, that's an important point.

None of these studies ever get replicated.

There was a kid in a science fair in Nova Scotia who showed that chickens laid heavier eggs while listening to country music, you know.

But really?

I mean, I don't think the science is there.

Cows and other farm animals are just suckers for novelty.

As we all are.

Okay, so the jury is out on whether we can create the perfect bovine playlist.

But there is good science about listening to animals, in this case to chickens.

And over the years, people have just always said, you know, the professional guys can listen and tell when animals are okay.

Wayne Daly is another computer scientist, this time at the Georgia Tech Agricultural Technology Research Program.

And chickens are a big deal in Georgia.

There are more chickens than people in the state.

That is a scary thought.

Anyway, Wayne and his collaborators wanted to see if there was any truth to the idea that you really could tell from chickens' sounds how they're doing.

You know, with people, they can walk in and you can, as they speak, right, you can say, you know, you don't sound right.

So why not see if that same thing holds true for chickens?

Wayne does have a bit of personal history with the birds.

He attended them as a kid in Jamaica.

So it's a long time ago, at the point I live with my grandparents in the country.

And so one of our chores is just kind of taking care of them.

But I can't truthfully say I was listening to them, I was doing any chicken whisper types of things then.

You know,

we just kind of made sure they got fed.

And so we didn't get into trouble, you know.

But the grow houses where chickens live in Georgia are a very different kind of environment to rural Jamaica.

Still, the owners know that if their chickens are stressed, they produce fewer eggs.

So there is an economic incentive to care about their well-being.

Because, you know, when they're distressed or uncomfortable, they just don't perform as well.

They don't eat like they should eat or they don't drink, and then it leads to other issues.

So they want to know.

Right now, the way to find out if your chickens are stressed or even sick is just by looking.

Most of them are required to walk through these facilities, I think, twice a day.

and basically look at and observe and you know make sure that all the the settings are right and what it comes down to if you you speak to most producers there are some people are better at it than others just like with any other job some people have a knack for it and their animals perform a lot better than the others so how did you go testing this theory out what's the first step in learning how to speak chicken so the first one we did was an experiment looking at temperature So we had the animals and there's a recommended temperature with which you're supposed to raise them.

We basically elevated the temperature just a little bit above, you know,

the situation that could normally happen in the summer.

And then, you know, while this was going on, we were recording 24-7.

And yeah, we were able to then, through some signal processing techniques, tell at what point the temperature went up.

And it seemed that there was a very strong correlation between the changes in the vocalizations and the actual rise in temperature.

They didn't just put the chickens in stressful situations and record those sounds.

They recorded sick chickens versus ones that are being vaccinated, too.

So, again, we knew the ones that should get sick, the ones that shouldn't get sick.

And then we were able then also to detect the different types of sounds they made

when they got sick.

And it correlated again with their observations.

It kind of worked.

Wayne and his colleagues now speak chicken, or maybe like first semester chicken.

They've identified 10 different types of chicken calls.

Here's a hen house with some sick chickens.

And here's one where they're all healthy.

And stressed chickens, they seem to squawk more often and there's also a slight change in tone.

Learning chicken is not an easy thing to do.

This is the same kind of challenge that Siri or Google or other voice recognition companies face, except that rather than identify a single voice, Wayne needs to capture a sort of overall buzz.

And then the even bigger problem is knowing what it means.

I mean, the chickens can't tell us if we're translating their squawks correctly.

You're not fluent in chicken yet.

I've been working on Spanish, and that's been a struggle, so I don't know.

Chicken might be a little bit harder than Spanish.

Yeah, that's right.

But still, for sick chickens, they're able to hear those coughs 90% of the time, and they could tell in all their experiments so far if the temperature got too hot and the chicken sounded stressed.

This year, Wayne and his team are starting to work with the companies that make chicken barn environmental control systems.

They want to integrate their research into the existing systems.

The idea is that the farmer will get an alarm if the sound in his hen house changes.

So it's a real-time update, not just walking through twice a day.

The system Wayne Belt right now works with fixed microphones.

It's not ideal, but chickens sometimes land on them.

Some of the other things we're doing, we're experimenting with

autonomous vehicles to operate in those environments.

I mentioned that people have to walk them sometimes, so we're experimenting with driving and flying vehicles.

And those could be outfitted with,

you know, sensors.

Wait, are you talking about drones in hen houses?

A new use for drones.

Yes.

I love it.

So one of those little

sharper image style drones would fly around in the hen house, making sure you got good coverage in there.

Of course.

Why not?

Cynthia, this whole episode is so James Bond.

Now let's venture from spy thrillers into the world of science fiction.

Right.

It's possible that one day the chicken sound translation machine could be connected to the control system for the building so that the chickens design their own environment.

After all, even when we make animal welfare rules at the moment, we don't know if the chickens agree with us.

But Wayne's system could help the chickens tell us.

You know, you could say, you know, we're pretty sure now that they're getting uncomfortable, right?

Then you're right.

In one sense, the animal will be telling us.

Yeah, this is probably, you know, this is my comfort zone.

That's fascinating because that's a problem with animal welfare.

The animals can't speak, but in a weird way, you're letting them speak.

Exactly.

Exactly.

And that's kind of how we're trying to, you know, approach it.

And speaking of animal welfare, you're working on chickens, and I understand chickens are a huge industry in Georgia.

But do you think that this could be applied to other animals as well, like pigs or cows?

Well, that's our thoughts.

And

in a research institute, what we're hoping is that we're developing tools and approaches and techniques.

And

you can envision trying to just move them to another space, right?

And so those are some of the conversations we've had with some of our other colleagues in some of these other areas.

Whether or not we could then use these tools, do similar types of experiments, and see if we could move them into these other environments too.

Then we're really going to learn what the animals are thinking.

That's right.

And I guess

we'll then have the wisdom of Solomon.

Exactly.

Nikki, we started with the the absolutely tiniest sounds possible, and now we're flying drones around henhouses.

But let's zoom out even more and listen to a bigger picture, the farm itself.

Mary Caton Lingold is a PhD student at Duke University, and she has gathered some of the sounds of southern agriculture, past and present.

She got the idea because she was teaching music, and her students didn't know the sounds she mentioned.

So she got everyone involved in creating a sonic dictionary.

They started with music, but it spread as they tried to capture all of the sounds of the things they were reading in class.

In the dictionary, they have sugar cane harvesting and shelling peanuts and bailing hay and the songs that the slaves sang.

And immediately, one of the things that they ran ran into is that the sound of farming has changed over time.

Those kind of field haulers, for example,

with the end of slavery and the increasing mechanization of agricultural work, you don't hear those kinds of songs in the field anymore.

But they've been kept alive in blues music.

Other things are a little harder to recapture.

Take that sound of sugarcane harvesting.

The sound recording in the Sonic Dictionary actually comes from Vietnam, because in Vietnam, sugarcane is still harvested by hand.

In the U.S., sugarcane harvesting doesn't sound anything like that anymore.

If you think of the movement of a scythe, you know, it has this kind of swinging rhythmic motion

compared to an automated

production, you know, crop,

what I don't know what it's called, you know, harvester, I guess.

That would be a more constant sound.

You know, it doesn't abate.

That's really interesting.

It's like pre-mechanization agriculture had a little bit more rhythm or something.

Yeah, I think you could say that it did.

In a way, you can think of the sounds as painting a historical picture of farming.

And a lot of those old sounds, they're completely lost.

But if we could capture or recreate all the old and new sounds of farming, it would be so interesting to hear what a southern farm from a century ago sounds like compared to today.

That's it for this episode, but we have more sounds coming your way soon.

In two weeks, you will discover whether you can hear the difference between hot and cold tea, and you'll learn about how the sound of tiny bubbles in your soda changes how it tastes.

And because we're awesome, we will also give you the perfect soundtrack for drinking whiskey.

All that and more on the next episode when we talk with Oxford University researcher Charles Spence about sound and food.

Thanks to all of our guests this week.

And a special shout out to Roger Meissen for taping Heidi for us.

For this episode, we've put all of the weird and wonderful sounds up on our website, so you can play horror music to your own plants if you're that kind of person.

And our website is also the place to show your appreciation with a donation.

We cannot tell you how excited we've been to see the donations start to come in.

Those of you who haven't had a chance yet, there's a donate button at the top of the website at gastropod.com.

Thanks for listening.

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