Fall of the Sumerians

Transcript

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Speaker 12 Hello, everyone. A quick note from me before we start the episode.
Just a thank you.

Speaker 12 Thank you to everyone who came to our Ancients live show last Friday, where we explored the story of Carthage with Dr. Eve MacDonald.
We absolutely loved it.

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Speaker 15 The dozen different sources from the period say something very strange.

Speaker 7 They say basically that the sun disappeared.

Speaker 12 Witness a world where nature reigned supreme and catastrophe rewrote the story of civilization.

Speaker 12 Huge volcanic bombs are coming out of the sky, these great rocks about three feet across, crashing through the material. In the ancient world, disaster was always lurking.

Speaker 12 Earthquakes and volcanoes flattened and buried mighty cities in an instant. Drought and plague wiped out civilizations without mercy.

Speaker 14 So if you've got an empire, that too becomes immensely vulnerable and prone to collapse.

Speaker 12 Life in the ancient world often hung by a thread. Over the next four episodes, we'll discover that survival was never guaranteed.

Speaker 15 It's like playing Russian roulette with five bullets in the six holes.

Speaker 12 It's time to step into the chaos and witness the catastrophe, to uncover how disaster reshaped civilizations and the world itself.

Speaker 12 This is Great Disasters.

Speaker 12 4,000 years ago, a great shift was happening in ancient Mesopotamia. The Akkadian Empire, sometimes called the world's first empire, had collapsed.

Speaker 12 And the prestigious cities of Sumer it had once ruled over, Uruk, Ur, Gursu, Lagash, had experienced a resurgence.

Speaker 12 It was a time of splendorous Neo-Sumerian cities, ruled by powerful dynasties, defined by great ziggurats, centered around ancient Sumerian as the chosen written language of these states.

Speaker 12 And yet, these new dynasties would soon also meet their own violent ends.

Speaker 12 In this episode, we are going to talk through the story of these famous Sumerian cities at the turn of the second millennium BC.

Speaker 12 A time of powerful early empires rising and falling. A time often linked to when the Sumerian civilization collapsed.

Speaker 12 We're going to explore just how far we should believe such a statement with our guest, Dr. Paul Collins.

Speaker 6 Paul, it is such a pleasure to have you back on the podcast.

Speaker 14 Thrilled to be back. Thank you.
It's almost like we've done this before quite a few times and in this room in the British Museum to talk all the things, the Sumerians and the Akkadians.

Speaker 14 Very happy to be doing it again.

Speaker 14 And we are keeping on that topic, but we are also doing an episode on, and I have it in, I don't know if quotation marks are the right word but with a little bit of hesitancy the fall of the sumerians to kick off this brand new series on the ancients about these disasters these big declines of ancient history when we talk about the fall of the sumerians do we mean the fall of some of the earliest known cities in the world well i think you could start thinking about it from that point of view for sure i mean it's one of the most interesting questions we need to address is really why certain ways of living come to an end.

Speaker 14 And the civilization that the Sumerians were certainly part of

Speaker 14 has come to an end.

Speaker 14 Do we have much source material for this topic? Because I'm presuming we're going back quite far in the story of ancient Mesopotamia.

Speaker 14 Well I think it depends where you want to start the story really because of course rise and falls depending how you define that happens across numerous periods at different periods at different times.

Speaker 14 So I think certainly where you want to start will define how much information we've got. Well, before we get to that chronological date, I've got one in mind.

Speaker 14 But where are we talking first and foremost with the Sumerians? Where in the world? So Sumer is effectively southern Iraq.

Speaker 14 Today it's the area covered by retreating marshlands under enormous threat from climate change, but the area roughly from south of Baghdad down to the head of the Persian Gulf.

Speaker 14 And was this right in the center? Was this almost one of the birthplaces of farming in the Fertile Crescent? Was this a key area for the emergence of these earlier cities?

Speaker 14 So, cities we now know have their origins, if one's thinking about large populations concentrated in one place, much earlier than perhaps was previously thought.

Speaker 14 And we see some of the earliest big urban centers emerging in places like Syria, but almost certainly in parallel with similar developments in what's now southern Iraq.

Speaker 14 So across a broad sweep of the Middle East, we see from around 4000 BC these concentrations of populations.

Speaker 14 And 4000 BC, is that the rough time period that we should be talking about with the Sumerians? And how far forward can we go with their story?

Speaker 14 I'd like to begin the story, if we're talking about the decline, as far back as around 2400, 2500 bc but that that's still quite a jump from 4000 bc that you've already mentioned well of course as early as 4000 bc the evidence we have becomes increasingly less so it becomes more difficult to work out exactly what was happening in those cities and then the causes of their decline But by the middle of the third millennium BC, the date you're interested in starting the conversation, we have a much clearer idea about the political world.

Speaker 14 And of course, we can actually talk about Sumerians because they're writing their language.

Speaker 14 And that allows us to really begin to think about groups of people, their identities, the ways in which they operated and work together. And of course, the impact of change on those societies.

Speaker 14 Well, you mentioned writing there, so it feels like we need to talk about this first of all. What types of sources do we have surviving then from the Sumerians to learn more about their culture?

Speaker 14 So we have from Mesopotamia some of the earliest writing in the world, of course. And this is inscribed on clay tablets.

Speaker 14 So little tablets of clay, about just large enough to fit neatly into the palm of your hand.

Speaker 14 And then using a piece of sharpened reed or wood, impressed with signs which represented ideas, sound values, which could be built up into words and meaning. So is it phonetic?

Speaker 14 Is that what we should be thinking? It's syllabic. It's syllabic.
So, each of these little wedge-shaped cuneiform signs

Speaker 14 represented sound values, which you could rearrange effectively in different orders to create words.

Speaker 14 And we have lots of these tablets surviving, but do we also have active archaeology happening in the fields in southern Iraq today, learning more about the story of these people?

Speaker 14 So, a huge amount of archaeological work going on, both by Iraqis and foreign teams.

Speaker 14 Of course, many are focussed on much earlier or later periods, but there's certainly really exciting work going on for the third millennium BC when we're seeing some of these big urban centers.

Speaker 14 We mentioned they're big urban centres. So can you paint a picture of the Sumerian world in, let's say, the middle of the third millennium BC? What did the Sumerian world look like by that time?

Speaker 14 Well, southern Mesopotamia, we know, was divided between a series of city-states.

Speaker 14 So there would be a capital city with surrounding towns and villages, which were understood as belonging, as it were, to a fixed political area.

Speaker 14 And these city-states would be governed, at least theoretically, by a divine figure. A divine figure.
A god or a goddess sat at the heart of each community.

Speaker 14 And of course, they had temples where they were worshipped. But those temples were built by dynasties of kings.

Speaker 14 So you had mortal rulers serving the gods, usually passing on their power from father to son. But inevitably, as with all political powers, there was a rivalry and dynasties came and went.

Speaker 14 And did these kings, these rulers, did they see themselves as more than mortals? Did they see themselves as the prime people who communicated with the gods? Did they see themselves as priests as well?

Speaker 14 So there's certainly a sense in these early cities that the kings, the rulers, were responsible ultimately for mediating between the people of the city-states and their gods.

Speaker 14 And we see images of them, we have texts written by the kings on their behalf, talking about building temples, feeding the gods, clothing the gods, and then inevitably receiving the gods' blessings.

Speaker 14 So we have these sophisticated city-states, you you know, controlling the urban centers and then the surrounding countryside for their food, but also, as you say, their contact with each other and beyond the borders of the Sumerian lands, but also these growing rivalries between them as well.

Speaker 14 What main city should we be thinking of? Because I would think straight away of a city like Uruk. So Uruk is a very good example.

Speaker 14 I mean, certainly Uruk is one of the most ancient large urban centers in Mesopotamia, and by the middle of the third millennium was one of the largest.

Speaker 14 So a vast sprawling network of canals and houses and agricultural lands, perhaps with many tens of thousands of people living together.

Speaker 14 But there were other great centers as well, places like Ur and Eridu, Nippur, Lagash.

Speaker 14 There are about 20 or 30

Speaker 14 great cities that were dividing the alluvial plains of southern Iraq between them.

Speaker 14 And so we get to the latter half of the third millennium BC.

Speaker 14 What is this big event that happens at that time that really shakes up the political order of, well, the Sumerian city-states? What happens?

Speaker 14 Well, it's an event which really repeats what had been going on earlier. and that's rivalry between city-states.

Speaker 14 So around 2350 BC, more or less, we we see the emergence of one powerful ruler in a city called Agaday or Akkad. He's a ruler that calls himself a ruler who calls himself Sargon,

Speaker 14 which means the king is true, or the legitimate king. So it's obviously a title that he's taken on coming to the throne.

Speaker 14 And he doesn't speak Sumerian, or at least his inscriptions suggest otherwise, and he speaks a Semitic language, a language related to modern-day Arabic and Hebrew, and which has completely different grammatical structure to Sumerian.

Speaker 14 And it's clear that the region of southern Mesopotamia was a very mixed population, with some people speaking Sumerian, perhaps closest to the Gulf.

Speaker 14 whereas others, perhaps further north, largely spoke the Semitic language, which we call Akkadian, after Sargon's capital.

Speaker 14 And one can think of this not as two distinct populations in opposition, but rather the result of mixed populations sharing the same cultural outlook, but simply recording that in different languages.

Speaker 14 And Sargon, the Semitic speaker, marches out with his army and does what earlier kings some of whom spoke Sumerian, had been doing, and defeating rival city-states, building from their city-states larger kingdoms.

Speaker 14 And Sargon is simply more successful than others.

Speaker 14 He defeats his rivals across the alluvial plain, claims control of the entire region, and then marches, according to inscriptions, beyond the alluvial plain. So beyond ancient Sumer.

Speaker 14 and the region that we could call Akkad,

Speaker 14 up the river Euphrates, up the river Tigris, or down the Persian Gulf, extending his authority. So, does he conquer all of the Sumerian people then?

Speaker 14 All of Sumer, all of these city-states that we've mentioned, like Uruk, Ur, and so on? He claims to do so, and that seems to have been the case.

Speaker 14 I mean, I say some of these earlier city-states, places like Ur and Lagash, had also been extending their control by defeating their rivals. But nobody had taken it quite as far as Sargon.

Speaker 14 He managed to consolidate control across the entire alluvial plane. We have dedicated an entire episode to Sargon not too long ago, and we really focused on his character and his expansion and so on.

Speaker 14 But we didn't focus as much on what happens in those cities that he conquers. So let's focus on that now, on these Sumerian city-states.
Because how does this new Akkadian overlordship?

Speaker 14 of places like Uruk and Ur, does it really affect their prominence? Does it affect the day-to-day runnings of these cities? Do we know how they fared?

Speaker 14 So in many respects, again, as far as we can tell from the rather limited evidence, and we've got lots of tablets talking about the economies of these cities, life probably continued to some extent as before.

Speaker 14 So some of the rulers were left in charge. The way in which they organized their lives wouldn't have changed dramatically.

Speaker 14 So material would have been brought in from the countryside and offered to the gods. There would have been an exchange of

Speaker 14 goods across the alluvial plain. But of course, Sargon would have expected taxation to have come into the centre.

Speaker 14 And so through his control, his dominance of these great trading networks and the agricultural wealth of the region, he was able to grow immensely wealthy.

Speaker 14 And we can see that to some extent under his successors, where they invested in extraordinary art and architecture to reflect their power.

Speaker 14 And do they build that art and architecture in the cities that they conquered or their predecessors had conquered like Saga?

Speaker 14 We certainly see buildings of the Agaday period reflecting their dominance and they of course talk about that dominance through inscriptions.

Speaker 14 and they continue to use the Sumerian language to express power and authority.

Speaker 14 And in many ways, the Sumerian language begins to emerge as the language of kingship and of the language associated with the gods.

Speaker 14 Whereas the Semitic language, Akkadian, is used increasingly for economic documents.

Speaker 14 So again, a separation in the use of these different languages to define themselves in terms of their own time, but also that of the past.

Speaker 14 And how long does this this Akkadian overlordship of the Sumerian city-states, how long do we think it lasts?

Speaker 14 Well, of course, Sargon begins a process which then is expanded by his successors over about a century and a half, two hundred years at most.

Speaker 14 And then under his grandson Naram Sin,

Speaker 14 the empire probably reaches its greatest extent, reaching into modern day Syria and down the Persian Gulf. But it's always vulnerable because the

Speaker 14 Akkadian kings are dependent on local rulers to maintain their relationships with the center.

Speaker 14 And, of course, on numerous occasions, those local rulers would come together in coalitions and rebel against that overlordship.

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Speaker 14 We'll get more into those rebellions in a bit, but I wanted to focus on this particular period first of all, because when we think of city-states being conquered, you usually think that that symbolises a fall of that city-state from power and prominence.

Speaker 14 And yet, as you've stated there, Paul, from the limited evidence we have surviving, it seems that many of these city-states continued as they had before.

Speaker 14 The Sumerian language remains really important and arguably increases in importance.

Speaker 14 So how far can we say that the Sumerian people, the Sumerian city-states, endured a decline during this period when the Akkadians were dominant?

Speaker 14 So I think we need to be thinking about then Sumerian as a language rather than necessarily a people.

Speaker 14 There's very little evidence to suggest that the people on the ground, as it were, in the street, thought of themselves necessarily as Sumerian, as opposed to being the residents of particular city-states.

Speaker 14 And identity was very much with the city.

Speaker 14 and the god that or goddess that looked after that city and the fact that some people spoke Sumerian and some people spoke Akkadian may not have been defining in terms of their local identities.

Speaker 14 So if we think about the Akkadian conquests, they are very much about repeating a pattern we've seen from much earlier, when more of the written documents were in Sumerian than they were in Akkadian.

Speaker 14 But nonetheless, politically, there really wasn't a great deal of difference. But the Akkadian consolidation of control over the alluvial plain created a new way of thinking about the region.

Speaker 14 And it was that that perhaps was its greatest impact, was that future generations of kings, regardless of the language that they spoke in Mesopotamia, looked back to the Akkadian period as a time of great power and prestige that they wanted to emulate.

Speaker 14 And so

Speaker 14 creating a control over the alluvium became the desirable thing to do for future kings. This is almost, dare I say, the origins of empire imperial thinking in Mesopotamia?

Speaker 14 It was a shift of thinking, for sure. Smaller kingdoms had always been created and then collapsed politically.

Speaker 14 And of course, what we tend to be looking at is just the inscriptions of the elite and of kings. So we're getting a rather small snapshot of the reality on the ground.
And as kings and princes

Speaker 14 fell and rose,

Speaker 14 life in the streets may not have altered very much at all, regardless of the language you spoke. Absolutely.

Speaker 14 And these city-states do seem to be still doing pretty well at that time, but also, as you hinted at,

Speaker 14 also sometimes not being very

Speaker 14 loyal to the Akkadians. They want to rise up.
So talk to me about these rebellions that start to erupt in many of these city-states as the Akkadian Empire as time goes on?

Speaker 14 Well, you see this through the Akkadian period.

Speaker 14 There are moments when there are coalitions of the city-states that retain their original identities as independent cities and they come together in opposition to this idea of an overlordship.

Speaker 14 Obviously, there are kings, there are rulers who want to emulate the Akkadian kings and replace them, but others simply that want to free themselves of the obligations to the centre and benefit from the enormous agricultural wealth and the trading connections that are bringing extraordinary materials into their centers that they want to control.

Speaker 14 And so Naram Sin, our greatest Akkadian emperor perhaps, is faced by a major rebellion, which takes him a number of years to quell.

Speaker 14 He claims in his inscriptions to do it, but it's literally an uprising of the entire alluvial plane against him. Wow.
And he mentioned he's an emperor there. Do we know that for sure?

Speaker 14 Well, that's a modern term, of course, in a way.

Speaker 14 Then, whether we want to think of

Speaker 14 this Akkadian period as an empire in the sense that its control stretches beyond the traditional boundaries of this sort of cultural world or not is up for debate. I think probably

Speaker 14 many scholars would look for much later for the first true empire. It's with the Assyrians and so on, isn't it? And that's for another day entirely.

Speaker 14 But it was interesting what you were highlighting there. So the reign of Naram-Sim, so Sargon's grandson,

Speaker 14 and this big rebellion against him, is he able to quell that rebellion? But is it at the same time, even though he is successful, is it a symbol of things to come?

Speaker 14 How these various city-states, Uruk, Ur, and so on, they are still prominent and they are still

Speaker 14 pretty troublesome and they will come back?

Speaker 14 Yes, and that's the structure that's in place, that's embedded in the system, independent city-states.

Speaker 14 And inevitably, unless you can find a way of breaking down that traditional way of organizing things, this will happen in the future.

Speaker 14 Effectively, a country of Babylonia will be created in the second millennium BC. But it takes a long long time to overcome that traditional fragmentation of the alluvium.

Speaker 14 And so built into any expansive kingdom in the third millennium BC is this underlying problem that the independent cities will reassert their authority and want to throw off your authority.

Speaker 14 So these cities are still very much prominent and certainly don't seem to be in decline at this time.

Speaker 14 So let's move on then, Paul, to the big event that then almost inevitably happens, which is the fall of the Akkadian Empire. So what happens?

Speaker 14 The fall of the Akkadian Empire, in many ways, is again one of those great debates in scholarship because it almost certainly involved a number of different factors.

Speaker 14 We see in the inscriptions pressure on the centre from obviously the rival city-states as they take advantage of weakness at the centre, but also pressure from outside.

Speaker 14 Other groups, not least the Elamites from southwest Iran, dominating the mountains to the east of Mesopotamia, they are always looking for an opportunity to take advantage of weakness and ultimately it is their invasions, the inscriptions tell us, that bring the Akkadian Empire to its knees.

Speaker 14 But nonetheless, other factors were at work and it now seems as if the end of the Akkadian period, so around 2200, 2150 BC, was a period of climatic change. Drought affected the region dramatically.

Speaker 14 Now these are city-states that are dependent on a world of agriculture sustained by irrigation.

Speaker 14 And the decline in water in the rivers or the advance of sea waters up those rivers from the Persian Gulf affects the agricultural potential of the land.

Speaker 14 And even if it's just for a few years, this makes these city-states very, very vulnerable.

Speaker 14 It disrupts, obviously, the supply of agricultural goods, but also means that it's no longer possible to acquire traded material coming in from outside. So the whole system

Speaker 14 becomes very vulnerable and prone to collapse. And so if you've got an empire or an extensive control over these city-states, that too becomes immensely vulnerable.

Speaker 14 And this seems to be a major contributing factor to the ultimate control over that region by the kings of Agaday. So it becomes vulnerable because all of the links become strained.

Speaker 14 It's not just Agadai suffers from the famine, it's that they all suffer from the famine.

Speaker 14 And then the whole fledgling, if I can even say the fledgling bureaucracy, the structure of this control, it falls apart. And it just shows the fragility, doesn't it? Absolutely.

Speaker 14 And I think this has been a recurring theme throughout Mesopotamian history and was almost certainly happening, of course, much, much earlier. And we have less evidence for that surviving.

Speaker 14 But the rise and fall of these cities, their political and economic structures, are all dependent on this extraordinary environment, but a very fragile one.

Speaker 14 Well, I think we can talk about the fall of a particular city here then, in the case of Agadai. But you mentioned the Elamites earlier.
Are these also the people that equate with the so-called Ghouti?

Speaker 14 So the Gouti are, again, difficult to define precisely, but they're peoples that seem to be located somewhere in those mountains to the east of Iraq, the mountains that now divide Iraq from Iran, the so-called Zagros mountains.

Speaker 14 And the people of those mountains are always attracted by the agricultural wealth and the resources of the alluvial plain. It's this repeating idea, isn't it?

Speaker 14 These kind of montane pastoral herdsmen or so on, a bit more warlike descending on the fertile plains in the valleys below. You see that again and again across the ancient world.

Speaker 14 You see it again and again, but you also, of course, it's repeated in the inscriptions of the alluvial plain as a sort of repeating motif.

Speaker 14 So it's perhaps an easy explanation if you're living on the flatlands of southern Iraq to blame those uncivilized barbarious people up in the mountains. The Highlanders descending.

Speaker 14 How much reality behind that, of course, is much more difficult to determine.

Speaker 14 This is just a way of explaining why your great civilization eventually declines.

Speaker 14 But almost certainly the decline politically, economically of these centers would attract other people in to take advantage of a situation, whether brought in as mercenaries or as workers or as invading armies.

Speaker 14 Again, probably a mixture of all those. So famine could have weakened one of these city-states and then the hammer blow,

Speaker 14 the destructive hammer blow could be outside external invaders coming in and destroying a city and looting it. Correct, exactly.

Speaker 14 And that may have happened from city to city or one big moment, which was the ultimate death knail, as it were, to the empire. Do we think that happens? That does happen to any cities at this time?

Speaker 14 Because is it the case with Agadeh that we don't know where it was? One of the theories is that it was just so brutally destroyed. Well, Agadeh hasn't been located.

Speaker 14 We have a sense of where it might have been, and it may well now lie under a suburb of modern Baghdad. It's certainly positioned very strategically.

Speaker 14 on the river Tigris or close to the Tigris to benefit from the trade with the mountains of Iran and the alluvial plain to the south. But it's never been yet located.

Speaker 14 No doubt when it is, if anything survives after modern building, it will no doubt show some of the most spectacular material from this period.

Speaker 14 But at the same time, the Akkadian Empire falls, but the city-states that we've already talked about, Aruch, Ur, and so on, endure past the fall of the Akkadian Empire.

Speaker 14 And normally after the fall of an empire, or if you can call it an empire, you see periods of chaos, you know, kind of confusion, not really knowing what's going to happen next, almost a power vacuum.

Speaker 14 Do we know how these city-states fared in the years following the fall of the Akkadian Empire? So the Akkadian Empire certainly seems to have brought an idea of chaos.

Speaker 14 Later inscriptions in Mesopotamia look back to that period, the end of the Agadai Empire, and actually ask the question, who was king? Who was not king?

Speaker 14 I mean, it was unclear who was actually in control. So that

Speaker 14 system of a single dynasty dominating the region had collapsed. So what was the new way that in response to a new world as being imagined?

Speaker 14 And of course, the city-state structure remained. And so it was back to individual cities and their rulers attempting now to restore the Agadai Empire.

Speaker 14 And of course, within that moment of chaos, there were the Gouti, the Elamites, and the local rulers all vying to claim the Agadai mantle.

Speaker 14 So they're all still in the area of Lower Mesopotamia, of Sumer at that time.

Speaker 14 The Guti and the Elamites, they haven't gone back to their mountains. They've decided to kind of stay in the region, have they? So they,

Speaker 14 again, were dependent, of course, on later later inscriptions which describe this period of chaos and then the emergence of new centers of power but could we then say that actually these city-states they are weaker at that time if i said from the surviving evidence may well be that there was a famine that contributed to the fall of the acadian empire these other city-states they do endure

Speaker 14 But can we see potentially in this time, it's a time of rebuilding, of regaining their strength, of recovering from things like

Speaker 14 Again, it's difficult to know how much we should take literally these literary descriptions of later

Speaker 14 about this period of decline of the Agaday political control. Because, of course, for many of these city-states, it was a sense of being liberated to do their own thing once again.

Speaker 14 And yes, no doubt, the period of drought and upheaval would have affected things very widely.

Speaker 14 But after a couple of years, the agricultural resources returned and then cities could once again start flourishing as they had always.

Speaker 14 And so what time period should we be focusing in on now, Paul? How far ahead have we gone from where we began in the mid-third millennium BC?

Speaker 14 So the Agadai Empire has collapsed around 2150 BC, something like that. Again, the the chronology slightly imprecise, but we begin to see some city-states reasserting their

Speaker 14 independence, their identities.

Speaker 14 And one of the best known of those city-states for this particular period is one called Lagash,

Speaker 14 which is located on the alluvial plain, relatively close to the mountains of Iran.

Speaker 14 So it's able to benefit enormously from close links to the Elamites and the rich resources of the mountains, the woods, the stones, the metals.

Speaker 14 And is this the first sense, real sense of stability then from our surviving sources post-the fall of this empire's decline?

Speaker 14 So what we see probably is a continuity in a way that the dynasties at Lagash had always benefited from its geographical position, its control over those trade routes and been wealthy as a result.

Speaker 14 And there are enormous temple buildings from the earlier third millennium at Lagash and its cult center of Girusu, for example. So it's always an important centre.

Speaker 14 But now with the fall of the Agadei control over the region, we see a dynasty of kings emerge in Lagash that reassert that control over the wealth. And is this the figure I have in my notes?

Speaker 14 Is it King Gudea or Gadea? I'm probably saying it butchering the pronunciation. Yes, so Gudea is

Speaker 14 certainly the most famous of the kings of this period, who is a ruler of the city-state of Lagash

Speaker 14 and

Speaker 14 uses his new independence and control of all this wealth that the city-state is able to dominate, trade, bringing in metals and stones from the mountains of Iran and elsewhere, that he's able to create a sense of a new start,

Speaker 14 a new beginning, which he's in control of. It shows, doesn't it, so these city-states, they're still very much thriving, or at least Lagash is.

Speaker 14 But Lagash doesn't remain the only one that we see in the surviving sources that does seem to have a resurgence. Because, Paul, talk to me about the rise.

Speaker 14 the rise again of Ur in particular, because this city-state experiences a brand new life at this time, it feels.

Speaker 14 well again is it about a revival or is it rather continuity but suddenly we're able to see it right it's no longer blanketed by this agade overlordship but rather able to exert its independence but of course all these city states whether it's lagash and ur that emerges to then dominate the region, they are in a new world in the sense that that their rulers are building on the traditions of the Agaday period.

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Speaker 14 Because later you have like the Neo-Assyrians versus the older Assyrians. Is this described as the Neo-Sumerian period? So it's called that really because

Speaker 14 the rulers of these city-states

Speaker 14 start to use the Sumerian language in a much more elaborate way than previously.

Speaker 14 So yes, they continue to create monuments with Sumerian inscriptions, but Sumerian increasingly is made the language of administration. And it's at a time probably when the spoken language is dying.

Speaker 14 And this

Speaker 14 happens to languages across the globe that they have a lifespan, they can be absorbed into other cultures and disappear from the spoken language. But is the spoken language then also Sumerian?

Speaker 14 So it's still remaining prominent in writing but not being spoken? Correct. So it's actually a political decision.
So if one takes Latin as a sort of better known example, after the Roman Empire,

Speaker 14 Latin ceases to become a spoken language, would be eventually replaced, of course, with Italian in the heartland, but Latin continues as a written language of authority, of learning and administration, even though people in the street are no longer speaking it.

Speaker 14 And the same seems to have been the case with Sumerian. It's gradually replaced by the Semitic language, Akkadian, and its relations.

Speaker 14 This isn't about conquest. This is just about cultural change.
The majority of people start speaking that language. And Sumerian becomes less and less spoken in the street.

Speaker 14 But at that very moment, the new authorities in power see this language as ancient, as connected to their land, but is specialized.

Speaker 14 It's so special that their administrators, their scribes, their scholars can use it, just like Latin would be used in the medieval period.

Speaker 14 And as a result, modern scholars reading all these texts, which are now in Sumerian, have recreated, have created a notion that this is a revival of a people.

Speaker 14 I think it's not. It's the use of a dying language as the script of of power and authority.

Speaker 14 So could you say then, getting my head around this, that the city-states that are often called Sumerian today, like Uruk, Ur, Lagash, and so on, they're still very prominent at this time.

Speaker 14 The people who are often labeled today as Sumerians who lived in those places, they're still prominent at the time.

Speaker 14 And as you say, post-Akkadian dynasty, the fall of the Akkadians, there's the resurgence in some of these cities and would explore the rulers as well.

Speaker 14 But if we take the Sumerians or Sumerian as meaning the language itself, at this time of resurgence for the city, and potentially a people, you argue it's not,

Speaker 14 the language itself, can we say, has experienced a decline at this time. It remains important, but it's not.
the spoken language anymore.

Speaker 14 So in terms of as a spoken language, Sumerian is declining and will eventually cease to be spoken. But it's being used now, is being written much, much more extensively.
And it

Speaker 14 becomes the language of the state and therefore its identity. So one could argue, indeed, that these are Sumerian states by virtue of

Speaker 14 the Sumerian language being at its heart.

Speaker 14 But in terms of people

Speaker 14 on the street, they're almost certainly not speaking it.

Speaker 14 Well, we'll keep that in mind is we'll keep, we'll call these Sumerian states for the meantime then, just to make it as easy and streamlined as possible.

Speaker 14 So they are experiencing a resurgence at this time. Who are the figures, let's say as Ur, because this seems a prime example.

Speaker 14 Do we know much about the rulers who oversee this prominence of this city at that time?

Speaker 14 Yes, we have a lot of information increasingly about this particular period, which is often described as the third dynasty of Ur or the Ur three state.

Speaker 14 According to later Mesopotamian tradition, it's the third time that Ur has dominated the alluvial plain, but that's something of a construct.

Speaker 14 But the third dynasty of Ur, we have a great deal of written material, of course, largely in Sumerian.

Speaker 14 And we can talk about the dynasty of kings. Originally, the dynasty is emerging at the city of Uruk,

Speaker 14 a city just the north of Ur, but then it's the dynasty from Ur itself that takes control. And Ur-Nama is credited with being the first king of this third dynasty.

Speaker 14 And he's very famous because He not only consolidates his control over many of the what had become independent city-states, again an attempt to reassert control of the alluvium, but he builds in those city-states some great monuments, most famously ziggurat towers, these decked solid mudbrick structures for the focus of the worship of the gods who control these cities.

Speaker 14 And is this still a great ziggurat of Ur today? And was that built then by Ur-Nama some 4,000 years ago?

Speaker 14 Yes, so the Ziggurat at Ur is one of the best surviving examples in the city-states, so you can go and visit it today. It has its origins under Uanama, he

Speaker 14 was the king who had it constructed. Subsequent dynasties of kings, of course, refurbished it and rebuilt it, not least Nabonidus, much, much further on in the 6th century.
BC.

Speaker 14 So it's a monument that's been rebuilt on a number of occasions, but it's largely the result of Uanama.

Speaker 14 Given his expansion on the alluvial plane, is it possible to argue, if we call her a Sumerian city because of the prominence of Sumerian as the written language, does he actually form a Sumerian empire at that time?

Speaker 14 So he, like the Agadi kings, Menerisvex, creates a dynasty that expands their control over the alluvium. It takes a different shape than the Akkadian Empire.

Speaker 14 That's because of course politics has changed and there are different powers in the region. And the Ur three kings look largely towards the east, towards those rich mountains of Iran to control those.

Speaker 14 And so the third dynasty of Ur creates kingdom or larger empire that expands into what is today modern-day Iran. Doesn't seem to be near any sort of decline at this moment, I must admit.

Speaker 14 But keeping on Unama a bit more, he's famous for his law code. Can you tell us about this? Because I feel we have to talk about it.
So we have attempts to show the king as the ruler of justice,

Speaker 14 that the ultimate source of justice in the land was the king. We have earlier examples of that in Mesopotamia.

Speaker 14 But Unama has indeed a so-called law code, which is an expression of examples of how justice would prevail. So they're examples, effectively, of good kingship.

Speaker 14 But they become the models of more famous law codes, not least, of course, that of Hammurabi of the 18th century BCE.

Speaker 14 some 400 years later, which becomes the ultimate model of the expression of the king of justice.

Speaker 14 And you mentioned how he is the founder of this dynasty, the third dynasty of Ur? Correct. So how long does Ur remain prominent in this post-Akkadian time and arguably

Speaker 14 being the prime Sumerian city at that time and ruling over many other city-states in the area?

Speaker 14 So the Third Dynasty lasts about a century.

Speaker 14 So in the scheme of human life, it's quite a long time, but in the overall scheme of Mesopotamia, of course, it's it's yet another example of the rise of political power, centralization across the alluvial plane.

Speaker 14 But ultimately, as with the Agaday Empire, it too collapses.

Speaker 14 And so what happens? Why does it collapse? What are the theories behind why this Sumerian city collapses?

Speaker 14 So the reasons, again,

Speaker 14 can probably be a mixture of factors as they were with the Agadai Empire.

Speaker 14 And we read in the contemporary sources, in the administrative documents of the Ur 3 state, evidence of pressure from harvests, so the collapse of harvests, the feeding of populations, the movement of grain in order to cope with challenges, whether that's around drought or other forms of climate change is actually unclear.

Speaker 14 But also evidence from those texts of pressure from outside.

Speaker 14 We read about walls being built between some of the major rivers to ward off groups that are identified as Amorites. So tribal groups or other groups, again,

Speaker 14 probably defined in some sense as these barbarians from the mountains in the traditional way of describing the enemies, they are exerting pressure.

Speaker 14 And that may well be again in response to a weakened center. The Ur3 state was very, very bureaucratic.
It controlled the taxation flowing in from the provinces to the centre in enormous detail.

Speaker 14 And we have literally tens of thousands

Speaker 14 of cuneiform tablets which detail this taxation system. And are they almost all in Sumerian? They're all in Sumerian.

Speaker 14 the scribes, the administrators trained at the center in the language of administration, which was Sumerian, and then manage the resources coming in from across this extensive kingdom. And

Speaker 14 that

Speaker 14 also offers opportunities for disruption. So if some areas are prone to agricultural collapse or the movement of peoples, then it threatens the entire system.

Speaker 14 And so a very complicated picture is probably undermining that centralized control. And we see only glimpses of that in the contemporary records.

Speaker 14 And with the end of the dynasty, do we then think it is, if Ur has been weakened, is it a violent end? Do we think that Ur was sacked?

Speaker 14 So that's what we get from the later Inscotians, from the Mesopotamians of that region looking back to this period and composing what are described as lamentations.

Speaker 14 These are long literary accounts of the terrible events that happened in their minds to the end of the Ur 3 Empire.

Speaker 14 So like the Agaday kings, like the Agadai Empire, the third dynasty would be viewed as a splendid period. Again, a period for...
to be repeated, to be emulated.

Speaker 14 Of like the greatest city that had ever been created or to that point in history, do we think? Indeed.

Speaker 14 I mean, this is, you know, this is really what later kings look back on, even if they're creating it as a myth in their own making rather than as a reality.

Speaker 14 But certainly, we know that the dynasty of Uanama and

Speaker 14 his successors, not least the great ruler Shulgi, who created an idea of what the greatest ruler should be writing in Sumerian, his inscriptions would be looked back as the model by which all future kings should rule.

Speaker 14 So later kings would look back, write lamentations on the decline of the Ur 3 state, and in those descriptions, it's all about a violent end.

Speaker 14 And it's again those pesky Elamites from Iran sweeping in from the mountains, taking over, and taking the last king of Ur 3, Ibi-Sin, in chains up to the mountains of Iran, where he disappears from history.

Speaker 14 And is there a sense in those written records that, as you mentioned, we do need to take with a pinch of salt, maybe a barrel full of salt, that they also sacked external invaders, also sacked other cities in the area, like Uruk or Girsu and so on?

Speaker 14 Well, we get a sense that that is the case, that

Speaker 14 dynasties of new rulers

Speaker 14 take up residence in these cities, even if it's briefly, and we see we're back to a period of chaos.

Speaker 14 Now, that's, of course, chaos politically, but it doesn't mean to say necessarily that it's the collapse of all other systems, that people's lives, perhaps at the lowest levels of society, may not even been aware of some of these big changes.

Speaker 14 It's very difficult. So there's not the complete devastation.

Speaker 14 It's not like the sack of Carthage, or at least we don't know from our surviving records, where there is brutal executions of people in these cities, population replacements, or the taking of people from a city and placing them elsewhere in the world.

Speaker 14 We just don't know stuff like that. It's not as if the people are changing completely in these cities.

Speaker 14 So I suspect very much, and we have evidence from different periods, as well as these literary accounts, that terrible things were going on.

Speaker 14 that there were, of course, invading armies, there was great slaughter, there would have been major disruption. This, again, a recurring theme, not just, of course, in this part of the world.

Speaker 14 But then again, after that, those terrible events, then life returns, and those old systems of

Speaker 14 bringing canals to the fields and the agriculture is revived. And that sense of independent city-states at their center, their gods,

Speaker 14 that continuity is very clear.

Speaker 14 What about the Sumerian language? Does its fate really intertwine with that of the third dynasty of Ur?

Speaker 14 So when that dynasty comes to a violent end, does that also affect the survival of the Sumerian language?

Speaker 14 So the

Speaker 14 writing of the Sumerian language continues. And it is embedded in the training of administrators, of scribes.

Speaker 14 It becomes an important part of a very complex way of defining and describing the world by these not just

Speaker 14 administrators, but also scholars, where the Akkadian language, the Semitic language, is combined with the Sumerian language to give a very complex and extremely rich way of describing the universe.

Speaker 14 And Sumerian, in that sense, is never lost because it continues to be used by these scribes, by these scholars, right the way down to the end of cuneiform culture in the early centuries of the Common Era.

Speaker 14 So is it the case that after the fall of the third dynasty of Ur, that although Sumerian continues, it never is as prominent as it was during that time?

Speaker 14 That's correct, because the language of the street, as it were, the Semitic languages, the Akkadian, is much more convenient in terms of administration because so many other people speak it.

Speaker 14 And so you continue to get Sumerian used for royal inscriptions. Again, it speaks of antiquity and power and authority and harks back to the Agade and Orthri

Speaker 14 periods of brilliance. But for administration, now it's the the language spoken in the street, the Babylonian, Assyrian languages, dialects of Akkadian, which come to dominate.

Speaker 14 And is that epitomised by when you see the rise of Babylon soon after, is it Hammurabi and so on, that the language that they are using is Akkadian.

Speaker 14 Sumerian is still there, but to a lesser extent is more as an intellectual pursuit? That's right.

Speaker 14 And I think that's what's given the impression that the Sumerians as a people have been defeated and has disappeared. but in fact, it's just a change in the use of language by the state.

Speaker 14 And they've been speaking Akkadian anyway for some time up to that point. They've been speaking Akkadian for forever.

Speaker 14 So the people endure, so that the Sumerian language changes at that time. Correct.
So when can we really say, I mean, it's a fascinating topic to explore.

Speaker 14 When can we really say

Speaker 14 Sumerian has reached its end? When can we say that these Sumerian cities, as in cities where Sumerian was still written, does

Speaker 14 evidently experience a decline? These cities do fall. So Sumerian has an echo

Speaker 14 long after

Speaker 14 the last person has spoken it, for thousands of years. But it doesn't define, as it were, a group of people or a particular culture.

Speaker 14 It is part of the rebuilding and the remodelling and the reshaping of Mesopotamian culture over the millennia as new peoples take power and

Speaker 14 bring in their own traditions and we see new forms of economic and political organization. But Sumerian is there within that framework.
So that legacy lives on.

Speaker 14 But do we have an idea I mean, will the likes of Ur and Uruk when you get to the second millennium BC, will they ever reach the heights that they had in previous centuries?

Speaker 14 Do we see a clear decline in importance of these cities now as time has moved on? In many respects, no.

Speaker 14 The major changes to many of these cities are largely a result of the movement of the major rivers.

Speaker 14 And so the shift of the Tigris and the Euphrates and their tributaries and

Speaker 14 the streams that flow from them across the alluvial plain, they shift in their bed. But that is very often a gradual process,

Speaker 14 or when it's more violent change, then cities are left abandoned in the desert. But for places like Ur and Uruk,

Speaker 14 that doesn't happen until much later. the last centuries of the first millennium BC.

Speaker 14 And so we're looking way into the future for the decline of those cities.

Speaker 14 And many of them continue to survive even as the rivers shift courses, because kings from other cities, recognizing their great antiquity and their importance and the home of great gods, continue to build there even when their populations are no longer a major component of their existence.

Speaker 14 So he's almost asking about, might have to retitle this maybe with a question mark, Full of the Sumerians question mark at the end.

Speaker 14 Can we even say that there is a clear cut-off point for the fall of Sumer, for the fall of these cities, for the fall of the Sumerian language?

Speaker 14 If they manage to endure in these other forms, if when we mention the word Sumerian, you actually have to be more careful with how you say it because the people didn't identify themselves as Sumerian, you realize as an interviewer, it's much more complicated than simply fool of the Sumerians.

Speaker 14 I think it's much more interesting. I think it's much more complex real worlds that we're dealing with.

Speaker 14 And very often all we're seeing is that top elite royal level, where of course there are changes of dynasties and changes of identities. But fundamentally,

Speaker 14 these mixed populations connected very much their identity with their cities. And that's something one finds in Iraq to this day.

Speaker 14 And with the Sumerian language, so can we still imagine that there would have been people who knew how to write it, how to interpret it, all the way down to, let's say, the Neo-Assyrians in the first millennium BC in the great library of Ashurbanipal, for instance, at Nineveh, or maybe even then transported into the Greco-Roman world?

Speaker 14 Do we know much about that, that longevity of Sumerian as a language? So Sumerian is, continues to be

Speaker 14 written and, I mean, to some extent, of course, spoken in the same way that Latin would be spoken. But it's very much about a literary elite.

Speaker 14 It's the scribes who are trained in the system of writing and have the intellectual knowledge to be thinking about this.

Speaker 14 And they, too, were stumped by the tablets that were coming out of the ground recording some of these earlier attempts to record Sumerian.

Speaker 14 And so we see in the new Assyrian period, in the first millennium BC,

Speaker 14 cuneiform tablets where the scribes are writing some of the more archaic forms of the signs and trying to work out their original meaning in the Sumerian language. So it's an intellectual endeavor.

Speaker 14 And it's that

Speaker 14 intellectual world. that really comes to an end when the cuneiform system of writing ends in the early centuries of the Common Era, because Sumerian is embedded in the script.

Speaker 14 And once the script is replaced by alphabetic systems, then Sumerian disappears. Sumerian as a language endures all the way through the cuneiform tradition.

Speaker 14 That is extraordinary, and yes, as you say, almost the equivalent of Greek, ancient Greek, and Latin today as an intellectual pursuit. Paul, this has been eye-opening.

Speaker 14 I didn't know much about this topic at all. And you've highlighted so much about these cities and the people and of course the language of Sumerian and how it endured over millennia.

Speaker 14 It just goes to me to say thank you so much for taking the time to come back on the podcast. Thank you very much.

Speaker 12 Well, there you go. There was fan favourite of the podcast, the British Museum's Dr.

Speaker 12 Paul Collins, for this, our second episode in our Great Disasters mini-series this September, all about the Sumerian cities some 4,000 years ago, and how we probably shouldn't be looking at the fall of a Sumerian people but rather the fall of the Sumerian language as a spoken language quite like Latin today becoming an intellectual pursuit.

Speaker 12 It's all really interesting. We'd love to hear your thoughts about the episode in the comments.
Thank you for listening to this episode of the Ancients.

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