567. The Great Northern War: Murder in Moscow (Part 4)

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Dinner was prepared in a spacious hall.

Several small tables were placed in the middle of the hall for the new married couple and the rest of the dwarfs, who were all splendidly dressed after the German fashion.

After dinner, the dwarfs began to dance after the Russian way, which lasted till eleven at night.

It is easy to imagine how much the Tsar and the rest of the company were delighted at the comical capers, strange grimaces, and odd postures of that medley of pygmies, most of whom were so short that their size alone had people in fits of laughter.

One had a high hunch on his back and very short legs.

Another was remarkable by a monstrous big belly.

A third came waddling along on a little pair of crooked legs like a badger.

A fourth had a head of prodigious size.

Some had wry mouths and long ears, little pig eyes and chubby cheeks, and there were many more such comical figures.

When these diversions were ended, the newly married couple were carried to the Tsar's house and bedded in his own bedchamber.

So that was Friedrich Christian Weber, who was the ambassador of Hanover, the German state, to the court of Peter the Great.

And

he is struggling to cope, I guess, Dominic, with the fondness for grotesquery that has been a marker of Peter's court right from the very beginning.

Yes.

And Weber there is describing a wedding feast that was held in St.

Petersburg in November 1710, where the couple and all the attendees were dwarfs.

It's very expressive of Peter's kind of dark sense of humor, his fondness for,

I suppose, making a show of people who aren't of normal size.

I mean, he's obsessed by giants as well as dwarves, isn't he?

He is.

And there are German princes who are obsessed by giants, for instance.

But Peter's obsession with that kind of grotesquery seems exceptional, even by the standards of the time.

I think that's right, Tom.

And we'll be unpacking that a little bit in the first half of today's episode.

So people who've been with us since the very beginning of this Peter the Great epic will know that we've had lots of war, lots of diplomacy and battles.

We had the Great Northern War.

We had Charles XII's rise and fall.

We had the Battle of Poltava and Russia's ascent to join the ranks of the great powers.

And in this final episode, we'll look at the last years of Peter's life and above all the terrible and tragic story of what happens to his son Alexis.

And there will, yes, be some misconduct with dwarves to come.

But the reason we started with that guy, Friedrich Christian Weber, and his reaction to the wedding feast, is because he's a nice guide to what

St.

Petersburg, what Russia would have felt like to a visitor from the West.

And he hadn't actually seen that wedding, had he?

No.

So clearly it is something that is circulating among ambassadors in St.

Petersburg as an example of the kind of the madness of the Tsar's court.

Exactly.

Because that wedding was at the end of 1710.

And four years later, when he arrived in 1714, the diplomatic corps are still talking about it as a sign of how weird and outlandish and extravagant Peter's court is.

So when he actually arrived, Weber in St.

Petersburg, he finds it still a building site.

So we talked in a previous episode about how the land was captured from the Swedes in 1703.

Peter began work on the fortress and they had these gigantic teams of conscript labourers who were all being carried off by scurvy or malaria and whatnot.

What did you call it, Tom?

A city built on bones.

Yeah, that's the famous description of it.

Yeah.

But by the 1710s, so moving forward 10 years or so, Peter's sort of, if you went into his papers, they are full of kind of specs and plans for churches and palaces and offices and canals and things.

By 1712, he's effectively moved the capital to St.

Petersburg, even though it's not finished.

The census claims there are tens of thousands of buildings.

I think that might be a bit exaggerated.

But by 1716 or so, he's got an Italian guy called Dominico Trezzino who's building up a grid of canals.

And he's got a guy called a Frenchman called Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Leblanc who draws up a street network on a very enlightenment, rationalist, ordered plan.

Because there are a network of canals.

And so St.

Petersburg is one of the many cities that have been described as the Venice of the North.

I think much more reasonably than, say, Birmingham, with no disrespect to my father's native city.

Yeah.

But the setting of St.

Petersburg, which when it is begun, seems mad.

It's a marsh, it's a bog.

There are are kind of vast waters.

Once Peter has succeeded in imposing his order on it, raised up on the bones of all the laborers, but this sense of a kind of Augustan order emerging amid what had been bogs, the result is one of the most spectacular cityscapes of all time.

I mean, St.

Petersburg is a stunningly beautiful city.

In large part because of the combination of these 18th century buildings with the vastness of the river.

Yeah.

I mean, it's an amazing place to visit.

Yeah, I agree with you completely.

It is a remarkable place.

There's nowhere quite like it in the world.

And yeah, the interesting thing is it's meant to be the window on the West.

It's meant to be a model of European modernity, of rationalism.

You know, it's sort of anticipating so many of the themes of the Enlightenment.

And yet this guy, Weber,

the guy who you began with that reading, what struck him when he arrived in St.

Petersburg was not how European it was.

It was actually how non-European.

So at the very first public function he went to, he commented on what he called the foul language and the rudeness of the guards.

And he was really struck by the fact that he was dressed quite modestly.

He realized that everybody else was dressed in what he called trimmed with gold and silver.

In other words, that what Russians wanted, what they rewarded and valued, was not modesty and humility, but bling, basically.

So when he turns up, the guards refuse to accept that he's an ambassador, don't they?

And he says, well, I'm from Hanover.

And they say, I've never heard of it.

Yes.

They're ostentatiously rude to him.

Yeah.

And that combination of suspicion of the West, but also the obsession with extravagance and bling as a marker of status.

I mean, that would be very familiar to anybody who's visited Russia since the 1990s.

I mean, that's effectively the vibe in Moscow or St.

Petersburg now.

Also, a constant of Russian history is the drinking.

So Weber couldn't believe how much people drank.

He said, I drank a dozen glasses of Hungarian wine at this function.

And then Fedor Romodonovsky, the mock czar, came up and said to him, I want you to drink a full quart of brandy.

Of course, Romodonovsky has a history of getting a bear to strip you if you don't drink all this.

Yeah.

And Weber said, you know, I lost my senses, although I had the comfort to observe that the rest of the guests lying asleep on the floor were in no condition to make reflections at my little skill in drinking, which kind of gives you a sense of exactly what is expected of you if you turn up as a diplomat.

You basically have to put on gold robes and just start drinking brandy.

A couple of other things that caught his eye.

He noticed that people were wearing the latest fashions, so French hooped petticoats, he said, so that a visitor might think he was in London or Paris.

So Peter has won that battle with the elite to get them to wear the latest Western fashions.

But it's interesting he name checks petticoats because the women, as we said, are much more enthusiastic about Western fashions than the men tend to be.

Perhaps because men men are required to, you know, bear stockinged calves.

And it's chillier, isn't it, in the dead of winter?

Yeah, I guess that's probably true.

But what also really strikes him, you know, this is not an ordinary European court.

His description is a little bit like a man who's gone to a kind of a gathering of the Intergalactic Federation or something, and there are kind of aliens there, because he's really astonished by the sight of Uzbeks or Kalmyks with turbans and long robes.

They're envoys from the courts further east, or people bringing gifts of Chinese silk and Persian cloth.

In other words, his description is a perfect example of that common cliché of Russia as the crossroads of kind of Europe and Asia, East and West.

But also as a kind of showcase for exoticism.

Yes.

And this is an age when Europeans in the West are increasingly alert to the exotic nature of the Orient.

And so it's amazing for them to find it on the shores of the Baltic.

Exactly.

And this, so the fascination with exoticism, this is kind of where the dwarves come in.

Now, dwarves are part of the formula of any european court in the late 17th early 18th century so most european monarchs will have dwarves on hand if you think of diego balafquez's great painting las meninhas yeah painted about 50 years before this obviously that's all about the dwarves at the spanish court and dominant also just to reiterate that it is also about giants yeah the king of prussia with his regiments of giants And Peter has a giant, doesn't he?

A Frenchman called Nicolas Bourgeois, who's seven foot two inches, who he'd picked up in Calais.

And he's so keen on this that he marries Bourgeois to a Finnish giantess that he's found in the hope that they will breed a race of giants.

But unfortunately, they don't have children.

But there is something unusual about Peter.

He has an absolute fixation on this.

He would go to church with an escort of dwarves.

He always had dwarf acrobats and jesters on hand.

And he was very keen on having dwarves hiding inside pies.

Yes, of course, they're always kind of bursting out of pies, aren't they?

So we were talking about this en family yesterday.

You presumably can't bake the pie with the dwarf already inside, but how do you then insert the dwarf into the pie without making a hole in the crust?

You make the content of the pie on a huge scale in a pie dish, vast pie dish.

Yeah.

And then you have raised pastry.

So the dwarf crouches down and you raise the pastry over the dwarf and then he bursts out.

But surely the pie is hot.

Or are these cold pies?

This is more like a quiche.

Yeah, it's like a quiche, I guess.

Okay.

Theo says you put the top on last, so he agrees with you.

Yeah.

Well, anyway, I think there's a slight political meaning to this, though all his life peter has liked undermining the seriousness and piety of orthodox moscow going right back to the days with the the revolt of the streltzi and all that stuff and that dwarf wedding that we opened with came two days after his niece anne had married the duke of courland and i think the dwarf wedding was clearly a self-conscious parody of the wedding that had happened two days earlier and apparently peter was sobbing with laughter throughout this dwarf wedding he has a sort of i don't know whether it's unconscious, whether he's reflective about it, but he has a kind of fascination with mimicking the rituals of Russian kind of elite life.

He's always engaged in this kind of game of parody and play acting.

And also subverting his own preeminence as a symbol of Russia with all that kind of stuff of dressing up as a common soldier and marching in his own triumphs.

Yeah, exactly.

I mean, maybe there's an argument that some of the Roman emperors, like the Julio-Claudians, like Caligula or Nero, they were testing taboos all the time, aren't they?

That's part of their so-called depravity, is that they're kicking against the conventions of Roman life.

But there's something more obviously ludicrous and parodic about what Peter is doing, I think.

It's very strange.

It enshrines a sense of the grotesque at the absolute heart of

his court.

Well, here's a really good example.

So, this Weber was on hand to see.

So in January 1715, his old tutor, his childhood tutor, who was called Nikita Zotov, he'd made the mock pope of the all-drunken synod, as he called it.

Zotov was 84 and he got married to a 34-year-old woman.

And to give you a flavour, this is how Weber described the marriage ceremony.

The four persons appointed to invite the guests were the greatest stammerers that could be found in all Russia.

Old decrepit men who were not able to walk or stand had been picked out to serve for bridesmen, stewards and waiters.

There were four running footmen, the most unwieldy fellows, who had been troubled with gout most of their lifetime and were so fat and bulky they needed others to lead them.

The mock tsar was brought into this ceremony in a float carried by bears.

I was wondering if bears would appear.

Of course.

Because that's been another running theme of this series.

The priest, Peter organized the priest.

He said, I'll sort this out.

They found a man who was 100 years old and had lost his eyesight and his memory.

The whole thing just seems like a tremendous lark and a spoof.

And yet it is a real wedding.

And it's an example, I think, for us of how hard it is to get into the mindset of Peter's world.

I mean, it does feel like if you were dropped in there through a time machine, you would find it very hard to work out exactly what's going on.

And actually, maybe people themselves find it hard to work out.

I think Weber does, doesn't he?

Yeah, absolutely.

Now, this makes it sound like it's all just sort of madness and bellows and bears and stuff.

But obviously, there is a seriousness to Peter.

So there's a brilliant book by Lindsay Hughes, which is all about Peter the Great and his times, where she talks a lot about Peter's reforms, if you're interested in that.

You know, because of the Great Northern War, that turbocharged his efforts to modernize Russia.

It's not quite a total war, but it's not far off.

So he had to put loads of money into new factories and textiles and iron and copper works and new canals to basically mobilize Russia's natural resources and its manpower for the war.

He has a new tax system, a bit like a poll tax called the Seoul tax.

He has a new senate to replace the council of boyars.

He has a system of new government ministries, which are called colleges, which are modelled ironically on the colleges system in Sweden.

And the presidents are always Russian, but he brings in foreign vice presidents to run this, to basically run the machinery of government.

And above all, I think there's a general ethos that had not really been the case before in Russia.

It's not quite a meritocracy, but it's approaching that.

And it's symbolized by something called the table of ranks.

So there are three ladders.

one military, one civilian, and one for the court with loads of rungs.

And you basically move up this.

And this is an obsession in all Russian literature, isn't it?

Yeah, so Dostoevsky, so Crime and Punishment, for instance, which is set in St.

Petersburg.

Yeah.

Absolute obsession with getting ranks and the humiliation of not attaining the rank that you're aspiring to.

Exactly.

So if you read any story by Chekhov or something, people are always like, what rank are you?

Can I move up and can I move down?

All of this stuff.

It's not a complete meritocracy, of course, and it's not a complete temple to Enlightenment values.

Russia is still very corrupt and very authoritarian.

The classic example of this is Peter's great drinking pal, Alexander Menshikov, who was at Poltava, who was the guy who'd introduced him to his wife Catherine.

Menshikov is, you know, he would fit right into Putin's Russia.

He's incredibly corrupt.

He's incredibly ambitious.

He's sort of accumulating palaces and jewels and bling.

He's always getting government contracts and stealing government money.

And Peter always forgives him.

Peter was furious about all this corruption in the abstract.

And at one point, he dictated an order one day to his chamberlain, Pavel Jaguzhinsky, who was actually famously not corrupt.

And Peter said, right, I want the death penalty for anyone in my government who so much as steals a piece of rope.

And Jaguzhinski said to him, Does your majesty wish to live alone in his empire with no subjects?

Because we all steal.

Some take a little, some take a great deal, but all of us take something.

Do you think that Peter's fascination with parody and grotesquery perhaps is a way of dealing with the tension between the aspiration of his ideals and the evident fact that they can't entirely be realized.

So he spends some of his time kind of drawing up plans and playing the Enlightened Despot and all that kind of thing.

And the other time he kind of wallows in drunkenness and dwarf weddings and bears and all that kind of stuff.

So it's kind of like the ego and the id to go all Freudian.

I think so.

You know, Peter is a very serious serious person.

He has great ambitions for Russia.

But of course, his ambitions are colliding with reality, I guess.

He needs to let off steam, perhaps.

He needs to let off steam.

We're not unfamiliar with it now, of course, that there are politicians whose appeal is partly based on making fun of the established rituals.

You know, they're sort of having their cake and eating it.

And actually, two really good examples of that are Boris Johnson and Donald Trump.

They're sometimes self-mocking.

They sometimes make fun of the conventions and the expectations that other politicians have adhered to.

But I suppose the difference is that they are democratic politicians who have to appeal to an electorate to get into power.

Peter doesn't need to worry about any of that.

No.

He can do what he likes, can't he?

I mean, that's the thing.

And he just thinks, you know, when he went on his grand tour, he didn't want to be constrained by protocol, which is why he went in disguise.

And I think there is a kind of restlessness to him.

You can't imagine Peter knowing what we do of him, just knuckling down and obeying the rules and the conventions.

He has a kind of, is it a way of coping with the terrible traumas of his first 10 years or so?

But also for his courtiers, I mean, it must be tricky because you're being encouraged to mock the conventions that uphold life in the palace.

But if you go too far, Peter's not going to like that at all.

Yeah, Peter will behead you personally and whip you.

Yeah.

I mean, it's an absolute tightrope.

It is.

So an interesting question about Peter is how much he's an enlightened despot.

You know, it's a classic kind of A-level question.

And I think there are lots of ways in which he does anticipate them.

So you could see him as part of a tradition that reaches its kind of most obvious flowering with people like Frederick the Great and Joseph II of Austria.

The suspicion of organized religion, the dislike of obscurantism, fascination with science and geography, enthusiasm for kind of top-down modernization and whatnot.

If you sort of stretch the definition of enlightened despotism, you can see him as the start of a line that leads all the way to Napoleon, I would say.

There is a comparison to be made between Peter and Napoleon, an autocrat, a modernizing autocrat.

I mean, Napoleon obviously isn't messing around with dwarves and pies and bears and whatnot in the same way.

Well, no, he's not.

And so that's why I think Peter is kind of a little bit sui generis.

I mean, clearly there is a rationalist element to him.

He's a great one for a plan and all of that.

But at the same time, he's clearly very

interested in...

the darkness that is the other side of reason.

Yes.

There's a lot of darkness to come in this episode when we get get to his son.

The one thing he does definitely have in common with Napoleon, though, is he's a genuine celebrity, a continental celebrity.

There's a wonderful description of him.

He made a second tour of Western Europe in 1716, 17 when the war was largely won, and he went to France this time.

He stayed at the Louvre.

He visited Louis XV at the Tuileries.

Louis XV then was only a little boy, seven years old.

And Peter made a great fuss of him, hugging him and kissing him.

And there were wonderful sort of descriptions of him going to meet scientists and going to talk to Catholic theologians.

He's drinking a lot.

There's a wonderful description by the Duke of Saint-Simon, the great memoirist of 18th century France.

You know, he's always asking questions about everything from the tax system to the police, just like he was, you know, almost 20 years earlier when he went to...

Amsterdam and London.

Yeah.

We've mentioned a few times Robert K.

Masse's book, which is about, what, 20,000 pages long or something, just the most enormous biography.

And he gives some lovely sort of portraits of Peter in his prime.

And you can see why people found him such an infectious character.

He would get up at four o'clock in the morning and he carries a notebook and he's always writing stuff down.

He loves playing chess.

He loves messing around with his lathe.

He likes sailing, all of this.

He's got some very peculiar quirks.

So he has an obsession with cockroaches.

Whenever he goes to stay in a room, it has to be fully checked and swept for cockroaches.

And of course, the thing that a lot of people will know about Peter the Great, because we've referred to it in previous episodes of the rest of his history about other things, is this whole thing about curiosities.

You mentioned that the giants.

So in 1718, he sent out a demand.

He said, I would like people to send me, and I quote, freaks and monsters.

That was his words.

And Lindsay Hughes in her book says, this produced, and I quote, a three-legged baby, a two-headed baby, a baby with its eyes under its nose and its ears below its neck.

Siamese twins joined at the chest, a baby with a fish's tail, two dogs born to a 60-year-old virgin.

I think that's not plausible, frankly.

And a baby with two heads, four arms and three legs.

And then she says, but the response was not as good as Peter hoped.

What was he after?

That sounds a pretty good haul to me.

And he would exhibit these in his Kunst camera, his cabinet of curiosities.

Which is still there.

Yeah.

I think it was St.

Petersburg's first museum to open up.

It's kind of on the opposite side of the river from the Hermitage and from that massive equestrian statue of Peter on the far side.

And it's an incredible place to visit.

It goes back to, you that first visit to Amsterdam, where he was fascinated by the ability of Dutch scientists to preserve human flesh within bottles.

And those bottles are still there.

And you can see all these kind of deformed children, babies, whatever

in the bottles.

And also there's the skeleton of his giant Nicolas bourgeois.

Oh, yeah, of course.

It's there.

And it's got his heart.

And the heart is absolutely huge.

It was one of the most memorable things I remember from visiting St.

Petersburg.

I mean, this sort of stuff is quite unsettling, I think.

Very unsettling.

And actually, there is a very, very unsettling and dark side to Peter's character.

Peter is not just hot-tempered.

He is unbelievably violent.

So, you know, you go in and you report the taxes from such and such a province are not great this year.

And he will beat you with a stick or something.

He would often, at feasts, when the doors are leaping out of pies and, you know, there's great japes, he will punch his friends in the face if they say the wrong thing there's occasions where he would draw his sword and attack them and have to be physically restrained it's sort of like alexander the great and cleitus the black which must make him an alarming father

i would guess i would say he's one of the worst fathers you could wish to have actually and this brings us to the sort of meat of this story which is such a sad sad business so his son Alexei or Alexis as he's usually called was born in February 1690 when Peter was only 18 years old and he was married to Eudokia.

If you remember Eudokia, who was very conservative.

The boring one.

Yes.

Who he packed off to a nunnery.

So he was forced off to a nunnery when Alexis was eight.

So Alexis lost his mother when he was eight and he had a succession of German tutors and he studied all, you know, the things that you would expect, maths and foreign languages.

He's taught how to ride and to fence and whatnot.

This is so tragic because all the reports of him as a young boy are that he's very bright, studious, eager to please, all of this.

Do you think that he thinks that he is associated by Peter with his mother?

Yes, undoubtedly.

Peter despised his wife, Eudokia, and I think as a young man was just simply not interested in Alexis at all.

And Alexis always had the taint, I think, of his mother.

And indeed grows up and ends up living up to that, doesn't he?

Yeah.

So he's very conscious of the fact that his father kind of despises him for being a mummy's boy.

I think so.

I think so.

And I think what's a terrible sign is that Peter seems to have given his pal Alexander Menshikov, the very blingy, hard-drinking friend of his, special responsibility for Alexis and says, oh, why don't you take my son under your wing?

And there are stories of Menshikov punching Alexis or dragging him by his hair along the floor in front of Peter.

Bloody good laugh.

Make a man of him.

Making a man of him.

When the war breaks out, Peter would sometimes summon him to sort of set-peace moments like the storming of Narva.

But then he would just forget about him for long stretches, like months or years at a time.

So that leaves Alexis in Moscow.

And unlike his father, he loves Moscow.

So he loves all the icons, the chanting and the candles and all of that.

He does.

He's a sort of dreamy teenager, and he's very close to his mother's family.

And they're more conservative.

And he falls in with lots of priests and stuff.

And I think they...

They encourage this because they see him a champion of the old ways and orthodoxy.

And one day he will succeed and they will be able to turn the clock back on all Peter's reforms.

And so that's not boosting his profile with Peter, is it?

No, not at all.

But also temperamentally, they're so different.

Peter is, as we've discussed, is so physical, he's so energetic, he's so self-confident and gregarious.

And not bookish.

His education had been with the lathe.

Exactly.

And Alexis is very bookish and he's very anxious and melancholy.

He's clearly terrified of his father.

So when Peter would summon him, he would often make himself ill by necking medicine, you know, to try to get out of meeting him.

Like getting out of PE.

Exactly.

And there's a brilliant example of this.

He went off to study in Dresden.

And Peter sent him a message and said, I look forward to seeing your geometrical drawings.

You can draw me a fort.

Classic, Peter.

And Alexis was so terrified that he wouldn't be able to do it that he tried to shoot himself in the hand, but he missed.

He was shaking so much.

He ended up really badly burning himself with the sort of pistol.

Anyway,

in 1710, so when Alexis was turning 20, Peter arranged for him to marry a German princess called Charlotte of Wolfenbütel.

And at first,

everything seemed fine.

Alexis said, well, she's quite nice.

Yeah, we're getting on all right.

They got married in Saxony, but they didn't see each other much for the first couple of years.

They're married in 1711.

They sort of see each other off and on.

And then by 1713, when they're reunited in St.

Petersburg, Alexis has started drinking a lot.

And he starts to be very rude to her and to abuse her in front of the servants.

And he says, I wish I'd never married you.

I actually don't like you at all.

But they are still sleeping together because in early 1714, she's heavily pregnant with their daughter.

And Alexis walks out of the house with the words, goodbye, I'm going to Carlsbad, Spa town.

And he goes off to Carlsbad and he doesn't write to her for the next six months.

So actually, this is kind of behavior like Peter's, isn't it?

ironically, to his mum.

Exactly.

And she writes to him, oh, I've had a daughter, blah, blah, blah.

And he returns her letters unread.

Then in December 1714, he returns to Charlotte, but things are worse than ever.

He's now drinking loads of brandy a day.

He's also got this girl, a Finnish girl, who was a prisoner of war from the Great Northern War, who he met at a friend's house.

This girl is called Afrosenia.

And he moves Afrosenia.

She's a teenager.

He moves her into a wing of his house and he spends all his time with Afrosenia.

Charlotte, who's living in the other bit of the house, he doesn't talk to her at all.

She has a terrible leak in her petroom and water is pouring in and he won't even pay to repair the leak.

And yet, once a week, he will still pad along the corridors to Charlotte's room, as Robert K.

Massey puts it, coming grimly to make love in hopes of fathering a son to secure his own succession to the throne.

So Charlotte is very miserable.

She's had a terrible time.

She gives birth to a second child in 1715, who's going to end up becoming Peter II.

But nine days later, she dies of postpartum fever.

That's the end of her.

It's a tragic story.

Now, on the day of her funeral, Peter hands Alexis a letter.

And he says, I mean, imagine getting this letter from your dad.

It says, look at me.

I'm absolutely brilliant.

I've done all these things for Russia.

I'm a tremendous man.

You, you know, you're an absolute shower of a man.

You're a terrible person.

And it's not because of your treatment.

He doesn't even mention Alexis' treatment of his wife, who's dead.

You have no inclination to learn war.

You don't apply yourself to it.

Again, Peter's obsession with the fate of Constantinople.

We don't want to follow the Greeks with whom we are united by the same profession of faith.

Idleness and repose weakened them and brought them to that slavery to which they are now so long since reduced.

And if you don't mend your ways, says Peter,

I will deprive you of the succession as one may cut off a useless member.

So that must have helped him with his lack of self-confidence.

Yeah, with his mental health.

Well, Alexis goes straight to his friends and says, what do you think about this?

And they unanimously say to him, do you know what?

You should just walk away.

You are not suited to be the czar.

Tell your father you just don't want it.

So Alexis writes back to Peter and he says, I don't want it.

The strength of my mind and of my body is much decayed by sicknesses.

I do not think myself fit for government.

Please, exclude me from the succession.

Just let me go in peace to be a private citizen.

Peter is livid.

A month later, he's been brooding for a month month and then he writes back to Alexis and he says, you're going to throw away everything I've done for Russia.

I cannot resolve to let you live on according to your free will, like an amphibious creature, neither fish nor flesh.

Change, therefore, your conduct and either strive to render yourself worthy of the succession or become a monk.

And he says, when you get this letter, answer me straight away.

If you fail to do it, I shall treat you as a criminal.

God, no wonder he was drinking.

So Alexis says, I will become a monk, actually, now you mention it.

And Peter is shocked by this because Alexis is called his bluff.

Well, because he gets advised by a friend, doesn't he, that, you know, you can become a monk, but you can stop being a monk as well.

Exactly, at any point.

This is win-win.

And Peter says, oh, well, actually, becoming a monk is not easy for a young man.

Think about it a little more.

I will wait six more months.

So.

Six more months pass.

Peter's off on campaign in the West, in Germany.

Alexis is in St.

Petersburg, holed up miserably with Aphrosenia, his sort of teenage mistress.

Drinking like a fish.

Drinking like a fish.

Not like an amphibious creature.

No.

Genuinely like a fish.

And then on the 26th of August, 1716, Peter writes to him from Copenhagen and he says, I need your final answer.

Monk or Crown Prince.

Make your mind up.

And he waits, waits.

And there's no reply.

And then he hears reports that Alexis has left St.

Petersburg and he is coming west to Pomerania.

And he thinks, well, fine, he's coming to tell me his answer in person.

Great.

I look forward to it.

And the weeks pass, and Alexis is nowhere to be seen.

And then comes, not for the first time in this series, bombshell news.

Alexis has got as far as Danzig,

Gdansk.

But nobody has seen him since, and nobody knows where he is.

Tom, he has vanished into thin air.

Dominic, this is a stunning development, an incredible twist.

And I think it is so shocking that we should take a break and draw our breath and then we will come back for the final part of this epic series and find out what has happened to Alexis.

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Hello, welcome back to the rest of history.

And Dominic, you left us on the edge of our seats.

The Crown Prince of Russia has vanished.

Where's he gone?

Right.

Tom, the date is the 10th of November, 1716.

And we're in Vienna.

And we're the guy called Count Schoenborn, who's the vice-chancellor of the Habsburg Imperial Court.

And he's just retired to bed, shortly after a day, stuffing himself with schnitzel cake and listening to nice classical music or some such Austrian behavior.

And a servant comes in and says, you know, my lord, there's a man at the door.

He says he's Grand Duke Alexis, son of Peter the Great.

And Schoenborn kind of gets back out of bed and he starts putting his clothes back on.

And suddenly the door swings open and this man bursts in.

He's hysterical.

He's sobbing.

He's pacing the room like a madman.

He is Alexis.

He has fled Russia in terror for his life and arrived in Vienna.

So this is great news for the Austrian Emperor.

So the Austrian Emperor is called Charles VI and he's now in a very difficult position.

Nightmare.

What in the hell am I going to do now?

Do I house him?

Do I send him back to his father?

What do I do?

I mean, I can't think of many examples in history where something like this has happened.

And he says, well, we'll just keep the whole thing top secret.

And he sends Alexis to a remote castle in the northern Tyrol called Erenberg.

And so for the next few months, Alexis is housed in this Austrian castle in the strictest secrecy.

He's traveled with four Russian servants.

He's traveled with loads of books because we said he's very bookish.

And this girlfriend of his, Afro Senia, this Finnish girl, who is disguised as a boy.

I mean, it is very like a kind of 18th century melodrama on the stage, isn't it?

Right, Mozart would make an opera out of this.

They love a girlfriend who's disguised as a page.

Exactly.

So he's treated very generously.

He wants for nothing, but no one is allowed near the castle and the grounds are patrolled by Austrian bodyguards.

Now, Peter has gone absolutely ballistic that his son has vanished and he has sent Russian agents and diplomats across Central Europe to search for him.

And one of these men who's been told to look for him is the ambassador to Vienna.

He's a man called Veselovsky.

And he personally tries to retrace Alexis' steps.

He goes up to Danzig and he asks questions.

Have you seen this man?

And eventually he finds that a man who was calling himself Kokansky, clearly spoke with a heavy Russian accent, had stayed at various post houses on the road down south towards Austria.

And Veselovsky enlists a Russian guard captain called Romyantsov, who's a huge giant of a man, another giant, to look into this.

And Rumyantsov manages to bribe a man in the Imperial Chancery in Vienna who says to him, I think you should look in the Tyrol.

Rumyantsov goes to the Tyrrel and he asks around and he hears rumors of this stranger at Ehrenberg Castle.

And he goes goes as close as he can to the castle, and he catches a glimpse of somebody who looks suspiciously like it might be Alexis.

The Russian ambassador, armed with this news, goes to see the Habsburg Emperor Charles and gives him a letter from Peter.

Very polite letter, not an ultimatum, saying, Could you please send back my son?

And the Emperor sends a secretary to the castle to break this news to Alexis.

Alexis bursts into floods of tears and says, I will not go.

I will not go back to my father.

And so the Emperor says, Okay,

well, I will move you in secret to the opposite end of my empire, which is Naples.

And so in this bonker scene, Austrian imperial agents load Alexis and Aphrosenia and their servants onto a coach and they send them off towards Naples.

And Afrosenia is still disguised as a boy, right?

Still disguised as a boy.

But is pregnant.

But it's pregnant by Alexis, exactly.

And what is worse, they're meant to be travelling incognito, but they're drinking like fish again on the coach, generally drawing attention to themselves.

Anyway, they get to Naples in May 1717

and they are put up in the Castel Sant'Elmo, which overlooks the city.

By this point, Afrosenia is clearly very heavily pregnant.

The months go by and actually they breathe a sigh of relief and they think, great, we've got away.

We've pulled this off.

But in fact,

they had been spotted on the ride south, of course, because they've drawn attention to themselves.

This giant, Romyantsov, and his agents have been tracking them the whole time.

And when they're certain that they're in Naples and they've got them, they send a message to Peter and they say this is where they are.

So Peter now sends another representative to Vienna and this is his very best man.

This is a guy called Piotr Tolstoy, Count Tolstoy from the great novel writing dynasty.

And Tolstoy is your dictionary definition of a wily old fox.

Because he'd been Russia's first ambassador to Constantinople, hadn't he?

He had.

And he'd played it very well.

He'd also, when the Ottomans went to war, he'd been locked up.

Yes.

Because there was no kind of Geneva convention that stopped that happening.

And he's also, for people who've been listening to the rest of this history for a long time, here's the guy who had procured the services of that man, Hannibal.

Yes, of course.

The Cameroonian slave general of Peter the Great, I think the title of that episode was.

Of course, yeah.

So it was Tolstoy who had got him.

Yes, he found him in the slave markets of Constantinople.

Exactly.

Well, Tolstoy went straight to the Habsburg emperor, you know, and he said, look, as a sovereign and as a father, Peter really insists that you should give his son back.

And the emperor says, listen, I can't force him.

Alexis is a grown man, but you have my permission to go to Naples and talk to him yourself.

So Count Tolstoy goes down to Naples.

And on the 26th of September, 1717, Alexis is invited to the Viceroy's Palace.

And when he gets there, listeners who enjoy this kind of thing, it is like the moment in the Empire Strikes Back.

when Lando Calrissian betrays Han and Leia and co.

to Darth Vader because the door opens and Alexis sees to his horror that Count Tolstoy is there.

And Tolstoy has brought a letter from his father, from Peter.

And Peter says to him, if you come back, I will pardon and I will love you better than ever.

If you refuse, then I curse you forever and I will declare you a traitor and find a way to treat you as such.

Meaning, I will send men with Novichok or something.

to bump you off.

This is the threat.

Alexis is clearly terrified.

He asks for time to make up his mind and then he decides i i can't do it i just can't face my father i don't want to go back to russia and tolstoy now turns the knife he says well actually if you don't go your father has decided to march on italy at the head of an army to bring you back but crucially tolstoy bribes afrosenia to persuade her lover to go back home he is a wily old fox isn't he he is a wily old fox and afrosenia i don't think is overburdened with moral scruples i think it's fair to say so

alexis breaks down in tears and he says all right i'll go back on two conditions one that i can live quietly in the country and two that i can live with aphrosenia because i love her so much and she's so important to me and peter says yeah fine whatever as long as you come so off they go north from naples they get to venice and there tolstoy persuades him to leave afrosenia behind he says she's heavily pregnant she doesn't want to be crossing the alps so they leave her behind by january 1718 they've reached Riga, of course, now occupied by Russian troops.

And Alexis is immediately kind of loaded into a carriage and sent to Tver, which is near Moscow, to await his father.

And when Alexis's old friends hear that he's coming back to Russia, they are horrified.

One of his friends, Prince Vasily Dolgoruki, said, What a mug Alexis is.

He will have a coffin rather than a wedding.

So, 3rd of February 1718, all all the bigwigs of Russia assemble in the great audience hall of the Kremlin.

Clergy, noblemen, public officials.

The place is surrounded by battalions of guardsmen.

Peter comes in and he takes his place on the throne.

And then Alexis is escorted in by Count Tolstoy, and he falls to his knees and begs his father for pardon.

Peter denounces him, and then he says, I will pardon you.

But there is one condition, which Peter hasn't actually mentioned till now.

He says, you must reveal the truth of your flight and the names of all your fellow conspirators.

And so Peter is assuming that Alexis hasn't just been operating on his own but is part of a much broader plot to perhaps overthrow Peter, to destabilize his throne, whatever.

Exactly.

So here I think we come to the nub of this story, which is a kind of a link between the very first episode we did, which is about the feud between Peter and Sophia and the Streltzi and that kind of paranoia and stuff.

And which ended up in a violent kind of wave of torture, didn't he?

When the Streltzi do their final rebellion.

And he's convinced that there's a conspiracy there that wasn't actually there.

Exactly.

And now I think this, it looks back to that, but also so many of the themes of this anticipate, frankly, 20th century Russian history.

Show trial, suspicion, paranoia, an obsessive search for enemies within.

Because Peter is clearly,

I guess, for understandable reasons, given his boyhood, he is obsessed with the idea of a conspiracy against him.

And if there isn't one, he almost feels the need to invent it because there must be one.

So a few days after this great sort of assembly, he says to Alexis, I need you to list for me everybody you've ever spoken to about our relationship.

And Alexis, who is completely gullible, produces this huge list of relatives and courtiers and friends and tutors.

And as soon as Peter has the list in his hands, he sends orders to Alexander Menshikov in St.

Petersburg, close the gates and seal off the city.

And now send your agents out to round up every single person on this list.

So that's aristocrats, it's bishops, it's officers, all Alexis's former servants.

We're going to interrogate them all and get to the bottom of this conspiracy.

Now, one of the people on this list is Alexis's mother.

Peter's ex-wife, Eudokia.

So she's still around.

She's been in the monastery in Suzdal for the last 19 years, but she has been writing to Alexis, and there is worse.

Peter had just forgotten about her, but when his agents arrive, they find she's given up being a nun.

Oh, so she's grown her hair back.

Her hair has returned, and what is more, she has been living in a relationship with the captain of her guards, the man who's meant to be guarding her, who's a man called Stepan Glebov.

And so Peter says, what?

And he has Glebov arrested, as well as the head of the convent and some of the nuns.

Dominic, I would not want to be in Glebov's boots.

You absolutely would not, for reasons that will now become apparent.

So now they begin the show trials.

These are held in the great hall of the Kremlin.

Peter himself acts as chief prosecutor and he makes the case against all of the names on this list.

To give the example, Eudokia in the convent.

The nuns who have done nothing are sentenced to be publicly flogged.

Eudokia is sent to a really remote convent up in the north.

But some of the other prisoners are sentenced to death or beaten with the knaut or exiled.

Because what judge can resist the appeal of the prosecutor if the prosecutor is the czar?

Exactly.

So a lot of the sentences were carried out in Red Square.

I mean, it's the classic, you know, Peter the Great carry-on of people being broken with hammers on the wheel, people having their noses sliced off, having their tongues ripped out.

But the worst fate of all is reserved for this bloke Stepan Glebov, the captain of the guards guarding Eudokia.

And remember, he has done nothing wrong.

Well, he has slept with Peter's ex-wife.

But she's his ex-wife.

I wouldn't sleep with Peter the Great's ex-wife.

No, fair enough.

Well, I mean, you don't want to end up like this.

So Glebov is lashed with the canout, then he's burned with red-hot irons.

He's stretched out on a plank with spikes driven into his flesh and left there for three days.

And they keep saying to him, confess.

And he says, confess what?

Like, I was never part of any conspiracy.

And finally, they take Glebov and they impale him on a a wooden stake which some accounts say was so artfully inserted that it missed all his vital organs

and then he's left on the stake to sort of slowly descend i suppose i don't know what happens to you if you're impaled on a stake and took him 14 hours to die oh god i mean there may well be grimmer ways to die but i can't think of any no and even though he's found no evidence of the conspiracy peter

It never occurs to him that there isn't one, and none of his henchmen ever argue with him about it.

Then they would come under under suspicion.

Exactly.

It feels very much reminiscent of Stalin in the 1930s.

Because how can you prove your innocence of a conspiracy that never actually existed?

Now, as for Alexis, the best that he can probably hope for at this point is to be exiled to a monastery.

But of course, if Peter believes he was really the centre of a conspiracy, then the implication is that the conspiracy would continue.

that even if he's in a monastery, he will be the focus of plots and opposition.

So for the time being, Peter keeps him under house arrest in St.

Petersburg.

And all the time, Alexis, poor Alexis, who is such a tragic figure and is so,

is so much his own worst advocate.

He's begging and begging.

Please, can I see Aphrosenia?

You promised me that I could live with her.

I love her so much.

And finally,

she is brought to the capital and questioned.

And it all goes horribly wrong for Alexis.

Does she stand by him?

She does not, Tom.

She does not.

She does not stand by her man.

So in her luggage, Peter's agents find drafts of letters that Alexis had written to various kind of bigwigs in Russia complaining about his treatment.

And Peter has Aphrosenia, he questions her personally.

He has her brought to see him.

And he sits down and questions.

It must have been terrifying for her.

And she cracked straight away.

She said, I never wanted to go.

Alexis forced me.

I only slept with him under duress.

He was always whining about you, always complaining.

He was always criticising you to the Habsburg Emperor.

Whenever he heard of a mutiny or rumors of mutinies in the Russian army, Alexis was delighted.

He often talked about what he would do when he became Tsar.

He said he'd scrap all your reforms.

He would abandon St.

Petersburg.

He'd give power back to the church.

He hates lathes.

He hates ships.

He'd give away all your foreign conquests.

And Peter says, well, this is the proof.

Here we go.

He has Alexis brought in.

What happens to Aphrodenia?

She's not punished at all.

Not punished at all.

And when Alexis is brought in, he collapses.

He has a kind of nervous breakdown.

He says to his father, yes, I did write to the Habsburg Emperor about you.

I did speak ill of you, but only when I was drunk.

Yes, I did talk about what I would do when I rule Russia, but I never plotted against you or meant to kill you.

And then Peter says, well, what about this business about you rejoicing when you heard reports of mutinies and rebellions?

And now Alexis gives a...

dementedly self-destructive answer.

He says,

I was excited at the talk of mutinies, but I believe they would only call for me when you were dead because they planned to kill you.

I didn't believe they would dethrone you and let you live.

But if they'd called me in your lifetime,

probably I would have gone if they had been strong enough.

Yeah, that is mad.

It's a rambling but incredibly self-incriminating answer.

So Alexis is arrested and he's imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress, which, as you said, Tom, was the sort of foundation stone of St.

Petersburg.

And his show trial begins in June, 14th of June.

And again, Peter acts as the prosecutor himself.

He says, Alexis, he fled to Austria as part of a plot.

He was plotting with the Habsburg emperor.

He was intending to seize the throne with Russian mutineers and rebels and with foreign military aid.

And he's been lying about it ever since.

And when Peter has made the case, Alexis doesn't deny it.

He confesses.

He confesses to a conspiracy that...

I don't believe, and I don't think any historian believes, existed.

So why is he doing that?

Why did people do it in the 1930s?

They're They're broken and they hope this is the only way to get clemency because it's very clear that the court will not accept

his claim that he's not guilty.

So maybe the best thing to do is to pretend that he is guilty and beg for forgiveness.

But Peter doesn't forgive him.

At Peter's request, the court orders further interrogation.

And what this means is the darkest chapter of all in many ways in Peter's story, I think.

So on the 19th of June, Alexis was given 25 lashes of the knaut.

That will not often be enough to kill you.

You know, you're beaten with this giant leather whip.

Chunks of flesh off your back.

Five days later, he's given another 15 lashes, and his back has now been completely destroyed.

It's just a sort of mass of bleeding flesh.

And now he's confessing to anything.

He tells Count Tolstoy, Yes, I wanted my father dead.

I would have paid the Austrians to intervene militarily against him.

And so that evening, armed with that, the court sentences him to death.

He is guilty, they say, of a horrid horrid double patricide, first against the father of his country and next against his father by nature.

And all of Peter's cronies and henchmen sign their names on this sentence.

So the question is, will Peter order the sentence against his own son, who really deep down has done nothing wrong, to be carried out?

And everyone's waiting to find out the answer.

And then on Tuesday, the 26th of June, the rumours sweep St.

Petersburg that Alexis has dropped dead of a stroke of some kind.

And the story is given out that he had this stroke.

Peter rushed to his bedside in the prison.

Alexis made a full confession.

He repented.

Father and son embraced.

Alexis was given the last rites, and that was the end of that.

But actually, this isn't what happened.

We know what happened from the logbook of the fortress.

Actually, earlier that morning, Peter and his closest cronies, including Count Tolstoy and including Alexander Menshikov, gathered in the torture chamber and had Alexis brought to them.

And they worked on him for three hours.

And a few hours later, Alexis died, effectively having been tortured to death by his own father.

So it's just an unbelievably horrifying story.

And in his biography of Peter the Great, Robert K.

Massey compares it with Ivan the Terrible killing his own son, which is a very famous scene in Russian history.

It's a very famous painting by Ilya Repin.

And the difference is that Ivan the Terrible killed his own son by lashing out against him in a fit of rage and then was full of remorse that he had killed his son.

But the torture is kind of premeditated.

I mean, if you think about the torture, the interrogations, the public humiliation, that had gone on for weeks and arguably was part of a pattern that had gone on for years.

But now they're turning up, the poor man has his back lashed to pieces, and they're inflicting, God knows what, further tortures on him.

Yeah.

Hard to imagine, I think, any father doing that to their own child.

But Peter often behaves in ways that rather stretch the imagination, I guess.

Yeah.

Alexis was given a state funeral and the reports that Peter wept at it.

But we know that he also that week went to loads of banquets and balls to celebrate the anniversary of the Battle of Poltava.

And afterwards, he had a medal struck as if he was celebrating a victory with the image of the sun breaking through clouds.

And the inscription read, the horizon has cleared.

I mean, imagine doing that about the death of your own child.

I guess the issue is that Alexis was the obvious heir.

So what now about the succession?

He's got a couple of daughters, teenage daughters, Anna and Elizabeth.

And he's got Alexis' son, Peter, who's only three.

But actually, none of them are quite right.

And so he has Catherine, his wife, the former Marta Skavronska.

The jolly one.

Yes, he has her crowned as empress.

He has a big coronation for her.

This is in 1724.

This is clearly a marker that she is going to be his successor, which is an amazing thing.

I mean, she's an illiterate Lithuanian peasant girl who'd come to Russia as a prisoner, but it's a sign of Peter's dominance, his autocratic sway.

Yeah.

You know, something unthinkable in the 1680s when he was growing up.

A measure of just how much he's transformed Russia, I guess, over the course of his life.

How old is he by this point?

So he's now 52.

He's not an old man.

He's younger than you, Tom.

He's old.

I think it's fair to say he's not a lean, fit, honed figure as you are.

He's a very moody, depressed figure.

And there's endless corruption scandals which are really getting him down.

So there's a very famous one and Catherine's Chamberlain, who's called William Mongs, who is the brother of Peter's old mistress, Anna.

He's been in a huge bribery scandal.

Peter has him beheaded and he gives Catherine Mongs' head in a jar.

Preserved, like all the babies in the museum.

Yeah, preserved.

Odd thing to do to your wife, but there you go.

Peter at this stage is really not a well man.

So he's been boozing constantly for decades, and that has taken its toll.

And he has also, we promised, sort of spa-related action.

He's been drinking colossal amounts of ferrous mineral water.

So he would drink 21 glasses of ferrous mineral water every morning.

And would he do this for his health?

Yeah, but I don't think it does do you any good.

I think even the most enthusiastic obituary of a German spa would say, come on, that's a bit much.

And does it have any malign consequences?

Well, now we're going to get into the thorny issue of Peter's bladder.

Peter has a long-running urinary infection, which probably left him in agony for two years.

And by the late summer of 1724, he's in unbelievable agony.

He can't go to the toilet at all.

And they finally get a surgeon from England who inserts a catheter up him and manages to extract a huge amount of blood and pus from Peter's bladder.

I mean, you would not want to be the doctor that has to do that to Peter, would you?

But nor would you want to be at the other end of the doctor's doctor's catheter, I think.

No, you wouldn't.

So eventually he passes this huge stone and things seem to improve.

But then in January 1725, he collapses.

The doctors investigate.

There's more catheter action and they find out something has gone terribly wrong with his bladder and they manage to remove two liters of...

putrid urine.

Oh, God.

I think that's the first appearance of putrid urine on the rest of his history.

In more than 700 episodes.

It's an exciting moment in the history of this podcast.

Well, Peter seems to recover a little bit, but then he goes into massive convulsions.

And on the afternoon of the 27th of January, 1725, he asks for a writing tablet.

And on the writing tablet, he writes the words, leave everything to...

Then he falls down.

Hollywood timing.

He passes out, drops the pen, and never wakes up again.

And he died at six o'clock the next morning with Catherine at his bedside.

And a last nice detail for you.

When he was dead, the doctors cut him open and they found his bladder had been infected with gangrene.

And I quote from Robert Kamasi, his sphincter muscle was so swollen and so hard that only with difficulty could it be cut by a knife.

Oh, God.

So just as he wanted, Catherine succeeded him.

But Menshikov was the real ruler of Russia.

So he's the bling oligarch guy.

The bling oligarch.

That continued for another, what, two years?

And then she died of TB.

Then Alexis' son, Peter, became a boy emperor.

He didn't last long either.

He died of smallpox when he was 14.

Then Peter's niece, Anna, became empress for 10 years.

And then her baby son, Ivan, became emperor for a year.

And then finally, Peter's daughter Elizabeth became empress.

There's a lot of babies and women there.

So four decades after Peter's death, Russia, which had never been ruled by a woman before, was ruled by a woman, a small boy.

a woman, a baby, and then a woman.

And is Sophia dead by this point?

Yeah, Sophia is gone.

I mean, if she weren't, she would have a wry smile on her lips.

A wry smile, but also a sense of frustration because she would have probably done a better job than any of them.

Yeah.

But the thing is, I suppose this is testament to Peter's extraordinary achievement.

That if you'd said this to a Russian in the 1680s or something, this will be the succession.

They said, What?

Oh, that'll be terrible for Russia.

It will fall apart completely.

But of course, even though the faces at the top keep changing and none of them are quite right,

Russia's status is now so established as a great power that it endures.

And presumably also the institution of the sardom.

Exactly.

The empire, the emperor or the empress, the autocracy is firmly established.

And that's the paradox of Peter's life, isn't it?

That he westernizes, but the effect of the westernization is to consolidate the autocracy that had always been traditional in Russia.

Yeah, I think that's a really good way of putting it, actually.

The very process of modernization, which is so top-down,

entrenches the power of the autocrat and the kind of centralization of Russia and concentrates power even more in the capital.

And maybe also because he was succeeded by such obviously lesser figures, figures it was easy to dismiss, I guess, that meant that his star, even posthumously, burned even more brightly.

So that even, you know, 100, 150 years later, People still looked to Peter as the exemplar, as indeed they still do today to some degree.

So in her brilliant book about Peter the Great, Lindsay Hughes quotes a pan-Slav historian called Mikhail Pogodin in 1841, one of the great 19th century historians of Russia.

And he said, wherever we look, everywhere we encounter that colossal figure, a figure which is still stretching, as it were, his arms over us, and which it seems will never disappear from sight, no matter how far we advance in the future.

And people did subsequently try to downplay him a bit.

So if you were a really enthusiastic kind of Slavophile, you know an admirer of orthodoxy and the old ways and stuff you might distrust peter as a pro-western modernizer the first communist historians tried to downgrade kind of great men and said oh he's just a sort of a vehicle for mercantile gentry capitalism but

stalin invoked him and if vladimir putin has invoked him discussed how putin has explicitly compared the war in ukraine with the great northern war and compared himself with peter recapturing what was always Russia's and all of this kind of business.

What do you make of him, Tom?

Well, I mean, he is clearly a titanic figure in the consequences that his reign has for geopolitics enduring into the present day.

He clearly plays a key role in

setting up that tension in Russia, which again endures to this day between its kind of westernizing tendencies and its more traditional tendencies.

But also he's the embodiment of why the hope that the process of westernization, whether it's introducing the Enlightenment back in the 18th century or democracy in the wake of the fall of communism, why it never leads to the kind of establishment of state that people in Western Europe and beyond tend to hope for.

Because I guess that he serves as an embodiment of everything that makes Russia seem stupendous, but also terrifying.

Yeah, Yeah, I think that's fair enough.

I mean, I think in many ways there are greatly attractive parts of his character.

The curiosity, the energy, the enthusiasm for novelty, you know, the sailing and the love of going to lectures in Holland or in London and stuff.

And yet,

especially when we've done that final episode,

the cruelty, the paranoia, the autocracy.

They seem so obviously to anticipate the cruelties of Russian history that follow.

Well, there are two great bouts of cruelty, aren't there?

So there's the Streltzy as well.

Yeah, the Streltsy as well.

And the truth of the matter is, he is a very

violent, often angry man.

I mean, for me personally, a father who tortures his son to death, I think that's inexcusable.

I mean, also, I'm very much Team Charles XII.

Are you?

I wish that he'd won the Battle of Poltava.

Tom, I don't disagree with you at all.

You know, I love a Swedish Empire.

Anyway, I've quoted a lot, a brilliant book on which I've rely very heavily, which is Robert K.

Massey's biography of Peter the Great, which is one of the most capacious and it's incredibly readable, swashbuckling story.

It's as much about Charles XII as it is about Peter, and I really recommend it.

So it seems only fair to end with his very last lines, which I think are beautifully judged.

He says of Peter, he was a force of nature, and perhaps for this reason, no final judgment will ever be delivered.

How does one judge the endless roll of the ocean or the mighty power of the whirlwind?

Fabulous, Dominic.

Thank you so much.

And thank you, everyone, for listening to this Titanic series.

We will be back next week with another Titanic figure, Hannibal.

So we will see you then.

Goodbye.

Bye-bye.